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History

ackett Board was invented in 1894 by Augustine Sackett. It was made by layering plaster within four plies of wool felt paper. Sheets were 36″ x 36″ x 1/4″ thick with open (untaped) edges.”

“Gypsum Board” evolved between 1910 and 1930 beginning with wrapped board edges, and elimination of the two inner layers of felt paper in favor of paper-based facings. Later “air-entrainment technology” made boards lighter and less brittle, then joint treatment materials and systems also evolved. “

“Rock Lath” was an early substrate for plaster. An alternative to traditional wood or metal lath it was a panel made up of compressed gypsum plaster board that was sometimes grooved or punched with holes to allow wet plaster to key into its surface. As it evolved, it was faced with paper impregnated with gypsum crystals that bonded with the applied facing layer of plaster.

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A wallboard panel is made of a paper liner wrapped around an inner core made primarily from gypsum plaster, the semi-hydrous form of calcium sulfate (CaSO4 H2O). The raw gypsum, CaSO42 H2O, (mined or obtained from flue gas desulfurization (FGD)) must be calcined before use. Kettle or Flash calciners typically use natural gas today. The plaster is mixed with fiber (typically paper and/or fiberglass), plasticizer, foaming agent, potash as an accelerator, EDTA, starch or other chelate as a retarder, various additives that increase mildew and fire resistance (fiberglass or vermiculite), wax emulsion for lower water absorption and water. This is then formed by sandwiching a core of wet gypsum between two sheets of heavy paper or fiberglass mats. When the core sets and is dried in a large drying chamber, the sandwich becomes rigid and strong enough for use as a building material. , brushless permanent magnet .

Drying chambers typically use natural gas today. To dry 1 MSF (1,000 square feet) of wallboard, between 1.75-2.49 million BTU is required. This is the main reason why organic dispersants/plasticisers are used i.e. to reduce the amount of water to produce gypsum slurry flow during wallboard manufacture.[unreliable source?] .

Specifications

USA and Canada

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Drywall panels are available in 4 ft (1219 mm) wide sheets of various lengths. Newly formed sheets are cut from a belt, the result of a continuous manufacturing process. In some commercial applications, sheets up to 16 ft (4.9 m) are used. Larger sheets make for faster installation, since they reduce the number of joints that must be finished.[citation needed]

For soundproofing or fire resistance, two layers of drywall are sometimes laid at right angles to each other. In North America, five-eighths-inch-thick drywall with a one-hour fire-resistance rating is often used where fire resistance is desired.[citation needed]

Drywall provides a thermal resistance R-value of 0.32 for three-eighths-inch board, 0.45 for half inch, 0.56 for five-eighths inch and 0.83 for one-inch board. In addition to increased R-value, thicker drywall has a higher sound transmission class.[citation needed]

Europe

In the UK and Europe, plasterboard is manufactured in metric sizes, with the common sizes being corollaries of old imperial sizes.

Most plasterboard is made in 1200 mm wide sheets, though 900 mm wide sheets are also made. 1200 mm wide plasterboard is most commonly made in 2400 mm lengths, though 2700 mm and 3000 mm length sheets are also commonly available.

Commonly used thicknesses of plasterboard available are 12.5 mm (modern equivalent of half an inch), typically used for walls, and 9.5 mm (modern equivalent of three-eights of an inch), typically used for ceilings. 15 mm thick board is commonly available, and other thicknesses are also produced.[citation needed]

Plasterboard is commonly made with one of two different edge treatments tapered Edge, where the long edges of the board are tapered with a wide bevel at the front to allow for jointing materials to be finished flush with the main board face, and straight edge, where edge thickness is the same as the middle of the board.

Construction techniques

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Drywall is delivered to a building site on a flatbed truck and unloaded with a forked material handler crane. The bulk drywall sheets are unloaded directly to upper floors via a window or exterior doorway.

As opposed to a week-long plaster application, an entire house can be drywalled in one or two days by two experienced drywallers, and drywall is easy enough to use that it can be installed by many amateur home carpenters. In large-scale commercial construction, the work of installing and finishing drywall is often split between the drywall mechanics, or hangers, who install the wallboard, and the tapers and mudmen, or float crew, who finish the joints and cover the nailheads with drywall compound.[citation needed]

Drywall is cut to size, using a large T-square, by scoring the paper on the front side (usually white) with a utility knife, breaking the sheet along the cut, scoring the paper backing, and finally breaking the sheet in the opposite direction. Small features such as holes for outlets and light switches are usually cut using a keyhole saw or a small high-speed bit in a rotary tool. Drywall is then fixed to the wall structure with nails, or more commonly in recent years, the now-ubiquitous drywall screws.

Drywall fasteners, also referred to as drywall clips or stops, are gaining popularity in both residential and commercial construction. Drywall fasteners are used for supporting interior drywall corners and replacing the non-structural wood or metal blocking that traditionally was used to install drywall. Their function serves to save on material and labor expenses; to minimize call backs due to truss uplift; to increase energy efficiency; and to make plumbing and electrical installation simpler.

Drywall screws are designed to be self-tapping.

Drywall screws have a curved, bugle-shaped top, allowing them to self-pilot and install rapidly without punching through the paper cover. These screws are set slightly into the drywall. When drywall is hung on wood framing, screws having an acute point and widely spaced threads are used. When drywall is hung on light-gauge steel framing, screws having an acute point and finely spaced threads are used. If the steel framing is heavier than 20-gauge, self-tapping screws with finely spaced threads must be used. In some applications, the drywall may be attached to the wall with adhesives.

Electric screw gun used to drive drywall screws

After the sheets are secured to the wall studs or ceiling joists, the seams between drywall sheets are concealed using joint tape and several layers of joint compound (sometimes called “mud”). This compound is also applied to any screw holes or defects. The compound is allowed to air dry then typically sanded smooth before painting. Alternatively, for a better finish, the entire wall may be given a skim coat, a thin layer (about 1 mm or 1/16 inch) of finishing compound, to minimize the visual differences between the paper and mudded areas after painting.

Another similar skim coating is always done in a process called veneer plastering, although it is done slightly thicker (about 2 mm or 1/8 inch). Veneering uses a slightly different specialized setting compound (“finish plaster”) that contains gypsum and lime putty. For this application blueboard is used which has special treated paper to accelerate the setting of the gypsum plaster component. This setting has far less shrinkage than the air-dry compounds normally used in drywall, so it only requires one coat. Blueboard also has square edges rather than the tapered-edge drywall boards. The tapered drywall boards are used to countersink the tape in taped jointing whereas the tape in veneer plastering is buried beneath a level surface. One coat veneer plaster over dry board is an intermediate style step between full multi-coat “wet” plaster and the limited joint-treatment-only given “dry” wall.

Fire resistance

When used as a component in fire barriers, drywall is a passive fire protection item. In its natural state, gypsum contains the water of crystallization bound in the form of hydrates. When exposed to heat or fire, this water is vapourised, retarding heat transfer. Therefore, a fire in one room that is separated from an adjacent room by a fire-resistance rated drywall assembly, will not cause this adjacent room to get any warmer than the boiling point (100C) until the water in the gypsum is gone. This makes drywall an ablative material because as the hydrates sublime, a crumbly dust is left behind, which, along with the paper, is sacrificial. Generally, the more layers of Type X drywall one adds, the more one increases the fire-resistance of the assembly, be it horizontal or vertical. Evidence of this can be found both in publicly available design catalogues on the topic, as well as common certification listings. “Type X” drywall is formulated by adding glass fibers to the gypsum, to increase the resistance to fires, especially once the hydrates are spent, which leaves the gypsum in powder form. Type X is typically the material chosen to construct walls and ceilings that are required to…

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History

the Spec Racer Ford is easily identified by the required “SRF” or “SR” designation on either side of the car

Spec Racer was first conceived as low-cost sports racing class by a director of the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA), Ted Cronin, in the early 1980s. The car was developed and originally manufactured by Renault/Jeep Sport USA in Livonia, Michigan under direction of Vic Elford. The car, designed by Roy Lunn, was introduced into SCCA Club Racing in 1984 as “Sports Renault.” After Renault bowed out of the program in 1989, and the car was renamed “Spec Racer (SR).” The original Sports Renault/Spec Racer is no longer an SCCA class, although a few Renault powered cars still compete in National Auto Sport Association (NASA), Midwestern Council of Sports Cars Club (MCSCC) and Eastern Motor Racing (EMRA) events. By 1994, the supply of rebuildable 1.7-liter Renault engines was drying up in the United States. The SCCA made the decision to replace the original Renault drivetrain with a 1.9-liter engine and five-speed transmission manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. This change gave the SRF an additional 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) to 105 - enough to push the cars along at speeds up to 135 mph (217 km/h). Ford Motor Company started to provide a new drivetrain in 1994 and the cars with the Ford powertrain renamed “Spec Racer Ford (SRF).” For a period of time, both Spec Racers (Renault powered) and Spec Racer Ford (Ford powered) both raced in the SCCA. Other more recent changes to what is now called “Spec Racer Ford” include the now-standard “tallman kit”, which is an extension of the original rear roll hoop (which was designed too low) Penske shock absorbers in addition to the original Konis, Butler Built driver seat, alloy wheels, rear wheel well cutouts, engine coolant recovery system, a safety modification to the brakes and an optional, smaller alternator. During the life of the car, there have been some incremental changes in various parts to increase durability. Tires have recently been changed to a Goodyear bias-ply racing tire from the previous Yokohama DOT radial tire due to a new sponsorship arrangement. The SRF still uses the original Renault brake rotors, calipers, outer CV joints, and suspension knuckles.

Technical

The SRF rules dictate that no performance enhancing modifications other than suspension adjustments within described parameters can be made to the car. This effectively eliminates the never-ending need for design enhancements and associated large cash outlays necessary in other classes of racecars to remain competitive and puts the focus on driver skill, rather than financial and technical investment. Every Spec Racer Ford weighs the same using ballast that can accommodate drivers who weigh up to roughly 225 pounds, uses the same engine, the same transmission, the same fiberglass body, the same chassis, even the same tires. The idea is that all of the cars are meant to have identical performance, so the only way to go faster is to be a better driver. The SRF’s engine, transmission, and shock absorbers are sealed with tamper-proof devices that make it impossible to modify these components undetected. In addition, many parts of the car, including suspension arms, fiberglass, and sheet metal are marked for compliance checking with special holographic tamper-evident stickers bearing the Spec Racer Ford logo. SCCA Enterprises periodically deploys compliance officials to conduct surprise inspections of Spec Racer Fords at SCCA National and some SCCA Regional events across the US.

Specifications:

- Tube Frame Chassis

- Suspension: front/rear rocker arm, coil-over shock/spring, lower “A” arm, dual externally adjustable anti-roll bars

- Ford 1.9L fuel-injected, water-cooled, SOHC 8-valve, hemispherical head, inline 4-cylinder derived from Ford Escort, sealed by SCCA Enterprises

- ECU: Ford Motorcraft, modified for racing, sealed by SCCA Enterprises

- Ford 5-speed manual transmission, sealed by SCCA Enterprises

- Goodyear Racing tires (bias-ply, same size on all four corners of car) spec tire, Goodyear Racing rain tire also available

- Custom exhaust

- Wheels: spec 13-inch alloy, can also run spec stamped steel wheels

- Brake Pads: Hawk (spec pads , cutting board glass .

- Cockpit Adjustable Brake Bias (Tilton , rare earth magnet .

- Penske Racing or Koni (original) shock absorbers (single adjustable, rebound only) sealed by SCCA Enterprises

- 92 in (2,337 mm) wheel base

- 1,670 lb (757 kg). including driver

- 3-piece fiberglass body

- Instruments: tachometer, oil pressure, water temperature, alternator warning light

- 105 hp (+/- approx. 3 hp)

- Fuel Capacity: 7.75 US gal (29 L; 6 imp gal) ATL Fuel Cell

- Fuel: commercial pump fuel only, usually 93 to 100 octane

- 135 mph (217 km/h) top speed

Customer Service Representatives

Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (January 2009)

A major strength of the class is the network of Customer Service Reps (CSRs) around the country. The CSRs sell, service, and rent cars.

They are the contact to order a new car and to assemble it if the buyer would like. They are also a source of information about available used cars in the area.

They will do major or minor repairs, suspension setup, and stock and sell parts for the cars. They can also supply complete race services where the car stays at the race shop, is delivered to the track ready to race, serviced during the weekend, taken back to the shop at the end of the weekend, and prepped for the next race weekend. This reduces the time needed to race the car and is a boon to those owners who lack the space or skills to maintain the car between races. Makes the experience like being a pro racer, except the money flows the other way.

The CSRs also rent cars to people who want to get their racing license, try out the car before buying, or just don’t want to own a car. This can also be used by owners who may want to race at tracks that are distant from their home areas. Instead of transporting their own car halfway or all the way across the country, they can just rent a car for the weekend.

The CSRs attend virtually every race weekend to provide parts, advice, and help for those owners who normally work on their own cars. This reduces the need for a car owner to tie up large amounts of money in spare parts and provides a source of experienced help when needed.

Gaming

The Spec Racer Ford is available in IRacing for download. It is also avaiable as a freeware download for rFactor.

References

General Competition Rules and Specifications

Technical Reference & SRF Speed Secrets

External links

Manufacturer’s Website

Sports Car Club of America Website

Official Spec Racer Ford Owner Registry

Spec Racer Ford Discussion Forums

Categories: Racing cars | Sports Car Club of America | Sports prototypesHidden categories: Articles with trivia sections from January 2009

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History

Flexene was invented in 1999 by Australian Architect Andrew W Killen. Flexene was first produced by bonding layers of polystyrene sheet and a fiberglass mesh. Both outer layers were grooved to allow bending. Mass production started in 2007 using EPS shape moulding machines. Flexene was first made as a substrate to construct compound curved walls lining a themed room in the inventor home. Flexene is now used internally and externally on residential and commercial buildings.

Flexene is a registered trade mark for Flexene Systems Pty Ltd. Flexene has been patented in numerous countries with patents pending elsewhere.

Production

Flexene is manufactured in flat sheets 25mm (1″) thick. Each sheet is moulded complete with a surface pattern of grooves to allow bending and twisting. A fiberglass mesh fabric is encapsulated in at the centreline of the sheet during the moulding process providing tensile strength and preventing the Flexene from breaking when bent. No glue or other material is used.

Properties

Flexene is a composite material or fibre-reinforced sheet made of fire retarded expanded polystyrene (EPS) and a fiberglass mesh. The sheets are grooved on both sides to allow bending or flexing. The EPS provides a lightweight insulating panel reinforced by the encapsulated fiberglass mesh. Density is 24 kg/m. Thickness is 25mm (1″) , magnetic frames .

Flexene will easily bend to a 300mm radius. Further bending is achieved with distortion and full 180 folding is possible with napping of the joints. However the sheet will not break due to the fiberglass reinforcement , fiberglass material .

Flexene is non-loadbearing and requires a timber or steel frame for support. The Flexene can be screw fixed or stapled to the frame as required.

Flexene is compatible with numerous surface coating systems. Flexene can be coated with gypsum based fillers or coating for internal applications. External applications require cement based or epoxy based filling or coating systems. Coating systems are required to be applied integrally with a fiberglass reinforcing mesh or scrim fabric to improve durability and surface strength.

Specified Assemblies of Frame, Flexene and Finishes have been fire tested and approved for use in a variety of building types and applications. Flexene can be finished in a large range of patterns, textures and colours. Flexene is non-toxic, inert and stable. Flexene reduces energy costs in buildings due to its lightweight and insulating characteristics. Flexene has no CFC and is HCFC free, and is recyclable.

Use

Flexene is used to build curved, twisted, warped or compound curved shapes or surfaces. Flexene is fixed to a support frame then coated with a protective finishing system.

Compound curves, also known as complex curves or 3D curves, from flat sheet material are difficult surfaces to construct. Flexene is a unique material as it can form a compound curve without stretching. The grooves on the surfaces of Flexene slightly become wider or narrower to accommodate surface expansion or contraction that occurs during bending or twisting. The grooves are filled with a render grout or plaster material locking the sheet into the desired shape. Further surface coats are applied to provide protection and a decorative finish.

Flexene is used inside buildings for curved walls, ceilings and partitions. When coated with durable finishing systems Flexene is used externally for walls, fascias and facades. Flexene is used for theatre, film and television sets as well as for sculptural elements.

External links

Invertors’ website

Flexene.com

Categories: Composite materialsHidden categories: Orphaned articles from July 2009 | All orphaned articles | Articles needing additional references from July 2009 | Articles with a promotional tone from July 2009 | All articles with a promotional tone

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History

Main article: History of pizza

The Ancient Greeks covered their bread with oils, herbs, and cheese. The Romans developed placenta, a sheet of flour topped with cheese and honey and flavored with bay leaves. Modern pizza originated in Italy as the Neapolitan pie with tomato. In 1889 cheese was added.

Base and baking methods

The bottom base of the pizza (called the “crust” in the United States and Canada) may vary widely according to stylehin as in hand-tossed pizza or Roman pizza, or thick as in pan pizza or Chicago-style pizza. It is traditionally plain, but may also be seasoned with butter, garlic, or herbs, or stuffed with cheese , fruit juice extractor .

In restaurants, pizza can be baked in an oven with stone bricks above the heat source, an electric deck oven, a conveyor belt oven or, in the case of more expensive restaurants, a wood- or coal-fired brick oven. On deck ovens, the pizza can be slid into the oven on a long paddle called a peel and baked directly on the hot bricks or baked on a screen (a round metal grate, typically aluminum). When making pizza at home, it can be baked on a pizza stone in a regular oven to imitate the effect of a brick oven. Another option is grilled pizza, in which the crust is baked directly on a barbecue grill. Greek pizza, like Chicago-style pizza, is baked in a pan rather than directly on the bricks of the pizza oven , commercial rice cooker .

Pizza types

Authentic Neapolitan pizza margherita, the base for most kinds of pizza

Neapolitan pizza marinara

Neapolitan pizza (pizza napoletana): Authentic Neapolitan pizzas are made with local ingredients like San Marzano tomatoes, which grow on the volcanic plains to the south of Mount Vesuvius, and Mozzarella di Bufala Campana, made with the milk from water buffalo raised in the marshlands of Campania and Lazio in a semi-wild state (this mozzarella is protected with its own European protected designation of origin). According to the rules proposed by the Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana, the genuine Neapolitan pizza dough consists of Italian wheat flour (type 0 or 00, or a mixture of both), natural Neapolitan yeast or brewer’s yeast, salt and water. For proper results, strong flour with high protein content (as used for bread-making rather than cakes) must be used. The dough must be kneaded by hand or with a low-speed mixer. After the rising process, the dough must be formed by hand without the help of a rolling pin or other mechanical device, and may be no more than 3 mm ( in) thick. The pizza must be baked for 6090 seconds in a 485 C (905 F) stone oven with an oak-wood fire. When cooked, it should be crispy, tender and fragrant. Neapolitan pizza has been given the status of a “guaranteed traditional specialty” in Italy. This allows only three official variants: pizza marinara, which is made with tomato, garlic, oregano and extra virgin olive oil (although most Neapolitan pizzerias also add basil to the marinara), pizza Margherita, made with tomato, sliced mozzarella, basil and extra-virgin olive oil, and pizza Margherita extra made with tomato, mozzarella from Campania in fillets, basil and extra virgin olive oil.

Pizza al taglio in Rome

Lazio style: Pizza in Lazio (Rome), as well as in many other parts of [Italy is available in two different styles: (1) Take-away shops sell pizza rustica or pizza al taglio. This pizza is cooked in long, rectangular baking pans and relatively thick (12 cm). The crust is similar to that of an English muffin, and the pizza is often cooked in an electric oven. It is usually cut with scissors or a knife and sold by weight. (2) In pizza restaurants (pizzerias), pizza is served in a dish in its traditional round shape. It has a thin, crisp base quite different to the thicker and softer Neapolitan style base. It is usually cooked in a wood-fired oven, giving the pizza its unique flavor and texture. In Rome, a pizza napoletana is topped with tomato, mozzarella, anchovies and oil (thus, what in Naples is called pizza romana, in Rome is called pizza napoletana).

Other types of Lazio-style pizza include:

Pizza romana (in Naples): tomato, mozzarella, anchovies, oregano, oil;

Pizza viennese: tomato, mozzarella, German sausage, oregano, oil;

Pizza capricciosa ("capricious pizza"): mozzarella, tomato, mushrooms, artichokes, cooked ham, olives, oil (in Rome, prosciutto raw ham is used and half a hard-boiled egg is added);

Pizza quattro stagioni ("four seasons pizza"): same ingredients for the capricciosa, but ingredients not mixed;

Pizza quattro formaggi ("four cheese pizza"): tomatoes, mozzarella, stracchino, fontina, gorgonzola (sometimes ricotta can be swapped for one of the last three);

Sicilian-style pizza has its toppings baked directly into the crust. An authentic recipe uses neither cheese nor anchovies. "Sicilian" pizza in the United States is typically a different variety of product made with a thick crust characterized by a rectangular shape and topped with tomato sauce and cheese (and optional toppings). Pizza Hut's "Sicilian Pizza", introduced in 1994, is not an authentic example of the style as only garlic, basil, and oregano are mixed into the crust;

White pizza (pizza bianca) omits the tomato sauce, often substituting pesto or dairy products such as sour cream. Most commonly, especially on the east coast of the United States, the toppings consist only of mozzarella and ricotta cheese drizzled with olive oil and spices like fresh basil and garlic. In Rome, the term pizza bianca refers to a type of bread topped with olive oil, salt and, occasionally, rosemary leaves. It also a Roman style to bottom the white pizza with figs, the result called pizza e fichi (pizza with figs);

Ripieno or calzone is a pizza in the form of a half moon, sometimes filled with ricotta, salami and mozzarella; it can be either fried or oven baked.

New Haven as served at Frank Pepe's uses whole clams with garlic, olive oil and oregano, on a thin, brittle crust and traces its roots to Catania in Sicily.

California pizza was establised by Los Angeles based chef Wolfgang Puck, who made pizza a "vehicle for unusual and delicious toppings like duck sausage and goat cheese and sun-dried tomato" as served at California Pizza Kitchen chain.

Non-Italian types of pizza

In the 20th century and onward, pizza has become an international food and the toppings may vary considerably in accordance with local tastes. These pizzas consist of the same basic design but include an exceptionally diverse choice of ingredients.

Pizza in Australia

Pizza is popular in Australia, where a significant percentage of the population is of Italian descent. The usual Italian varieties are available, but there is also the Australian, or australiana, which has the usual tomato sauce base and mozzarella cheese with bacon and egg (seen as quintessentially Australian breakfast fare). Prawns are also sometimes used on this style of pizza.

In the 1980s Australian pizza shops and restaurants began selling gourmet pizzas, essentially pizzas with upmarket ingredients such as salmon, dill, bocconcini, tiger prawns, and even such unconventional toppings as kangaroo, emu and crocodile meats. Wood-fired pizzas, cooked in an impressive-looking ceramic oven heated by wood fuel, are also popular.

Pizza in Brazil

Pizza is a very popular dish in Brazil, brought by Italian immigrants to that country. The best pizzerie are found in Sao Paulo, a city that calls itself "The Pizza Capital of the World", hosting more than 6000 pizza establishments and where more than 1.4 million pizzas are consumed every day. It is said that the first Brazilian pizzas were baked in the Bras district of So Paulo in the early part of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, they were only found in the Italian communities. Since then, pizza became increasingly popular with the rest of the population. The most traditional pizzeria are still found in the Italian neighborhoods, such as the Bexiga / Bela Vista. Typically, pizzas follow the Neapolitan variety, rather than the Roman one, being thicker and more doughy and oftentimes lacking tomato sauce.

Pizza in India

Pizza is a emerging fast food in Indian urban areas. With the arrival of branded pizza, it has reached to many cities in India, and is becoming extremely popular among youth in India.[citation needed]

Pizza outlets serve pizzas with several Indian based toppings like Tandoori Chicken and inclusion of Cottage Cheese (Known as Paneer in India). Indian pizzas are generally made more spicy as compared to their western counterparts, to suit Indian taste. Along with Indian variations, more conventional pizzas are also eaten.[citation needed]

Pizza in Pakistan

Pizza was introduced in Pakistan in 1993. A Mr. Manzar Riaz from Lahore is credited with introducing it to Pakistan when he opened up the country’s first pizza outlet.[citation needed] Pizza Hut opened its outlets in Pakistan in 1993 which was three years before India had its first Pizza Hut outlet in 1996. Unlike in India where the pizza has become widely popular, the pizza in Pakistan is only popular and well known only in the liberal provinces of Punjab, Sindh and Kashmir. The pizza is still virtually unknown in the conservative provinces of North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan.

As of 2009, Pizza sales in Pakistan generate over $2 billion annually which is the second largest pizza sales revenue in the world after the US[citation needed]. Pakistan also has the world’s largest Pizza Hut store in Karachi with a seating capacity of over 5,000 people. The United States’ fast food and pizza industry is well aware of the…

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Wakeskates

Types of Boards

Bi-level

One type of board is a bi-level wakeskate. The bi-level was first used on a wakeskate by one of the forefathers of wakeskating, Thomas Horrell. It is basically two boards usually made of maple veneers and/or fiberglass connected in the middle by two brackets. The point of having a bi-level wakeskate is that the flex in the top board helps accelerate the board from the water, which allows the board to stay with your feet and also feel more like an ollie on a skateboard.

Concav , fire resistant fabric .

The other type of board is a Concave deck, usually either compression molded out of fiberglass, or a wood core deck. Compression-molded wakeskates are less dense than wood core wakeskates, which is one factor that will cause a board to sit higher in the water (along with rail shape–a sharper rail will make the board sit higher and ride with a high response level; round rails allow a board to sit deeper in the water). Conversely, wood core decks tend to be a tad bit heavier, and are denser, which make them favored by most wakeskaters. It has been said that wood core deck feels more like a skateboard and is easier to control/feel , diamond paste .

Size

Wakeskates usually size between 100-114 cm (roughly 39-45 inches), which is considerably smaller than a wakeboard. Rail shape can vary from a more rounded shape, which is common on most wood skates, to a sharper rail, which was traditionally found on compression-molded decks, and a resurgence in the variable edge, which means the rail will be rounded in the middle and sharp on the edges. Today, a variable edge can be found on numerous wakeskates, since it allows for forgiveness on rails and lip tricks, but also allows you a sharp edge for cutting into the wake.

The Rise of the Industry

Smaller rider-owned companies have started to make their mark on the sport of wakeskating.

New materials and assembly techniques are continually introduced into the sport of wakeskating. Traditional boards are made of plywood or fiberglass, but a new technology has come out called Tri-Ax Fiberglass reinforcing. A woven fiberglass top sheet is applied. This process helps the board to be more rigid and increases the life of the board.

Marketing

Production

Wakeskates are manufactured by many of the same companies that produce wakeboards such as CWB, Hyperlite, and Liquid force, along with many Wakeskate specific companies such as Integrity, Oak, Sattalyte, and New. However, going back into wakeskating’s roots, the first company dedicated specifically to wakeskating was called Fresh Water Traction. Fresh Water Traction (abbreviated as FWT) was conceptualized and owned by Jason Messer, and FWT was the first company to produce any product specifically for wakeskating. Their first products began as traction pads, which are foam constructions one could attach to their wakeboard via the inserts one would normally use for bindings. This allowed for riders to try the art of wakeskating without having to commit to cutting up their wakeboard or attaching something that could also be removed. Later, Fresh Water also came out with the first wakeskate specific fin. This fin was shallow and long and allowed for the board to release much easier than most wakeboarding fins at the time. Towards the end, Fresh Water attempted to release a wakeskate to the public, but cost was a major hurdle that could not be over come.

Development

Soon before Fresh Water Traction ceased production, a small rider owned company named Cassette entered the market in 1999. In an interview with WakeBoarding magazine in 1999, Thomas Horrell alluded to the idea of a wakeskate specific company: “Some day soon there will be an all wakeskate company, and it’s going to be a totally different thing; it’s going to be sick. People will triple-take on it; it’s going to be massive and people won’t know what to think.” Early on, Cassette was run independently, but soon after the brand was licensed to Liquid Force. Once Liquid Force filed for bankruptcy, their working contract with Cassette became void, resulting in Cassette separating from Liquid Force in 2003 and not ‘99-’00 as previously stated. In the realm of board production and design, Cassette began by producing flat decks, but by 2002 they had introduced the first concave wakeskate to the market. 2003 brought about the influential and legendary 4-trac, along with a wakeskate-specific fin that allowed for not only nose slides, but bluntslides and manual variations. 2005 brought the world of wakeskating its first bi-level.

In addition to Cassette’s contribution to advancing wakeskate designs, they also produced and captured some of wakeskating’s most influential films, allowing them to portray wakeskating and push it in the best direction they saw fit. Cassette not only produced wakeskating’s first “team videos” but also the first film dedicated entirely to wakeskating, which is titled Linear Perspective, followed by 2003’s Sfumato.

Cassette founder, Thomas Horrell is widely respected from his influence on wakeskating and his contribution to its progression. Although the company is currently defunct, Cassette Wakeskates are still sought after for both riding and historical value. Cassette’s demise is attributed to a few years of poor production due to manufacturing errors. Many wakeskates during this time were not properly laminated and were made using a non-waterproof glue, causing the boards to absorb water. Cassette’s savior idea, the bi-level wakeskate, was not immune to these setbacks. While Cassette’s design is regarded as one of the best bi-levels among hard core riders, delamination issues were experienced with the first batch of top decks. This put the company in a tough position with warranties. (The bi-level design was copied by nearly every other company in the industry, who now utilize new technologies to make the wakeskates more durable). Horrell still lurks, putting out stand up video parts and pushing the sport.

WakeBoarding Magazine, 1999: “The wakeskating thing has just started. Messer and his whole scheme has just started to unfold as he thought. He’s totally right on when it comes to that. It’s going to be huge and totally break through all of the barriers that have been up against wakeboarding in the last three or four years.”–Thomas Horrell

Board materials

For the most part there are two main board materials. The wood deck, which is used to make Flat decks, Concave decks and Bi-Levels. Composite is the other main type, a lightweight material. They both have a different feel in the water.

Fin Technology

Fins are constructed with three different kinds of materials. The first and original fin material to wakeskating is plastic. This material will bend and crack if it is exposed to the right conditions. When the fin breaks and bends, it loses its performance. Plastic fins can only be molded down to .5 inches in width. Several materials fin manufacturers use are fiberglass and aluminum. Due to the fact that they are hand molded or machined they can be much narrower. The narrow fins will cut down on drag in the water. Aluminum fins are heavier and cost more, but they hold up to the beating that wakeskating can give them. Fiberglass fins are cheaper than aluminum fins, but in time they chip apart. They don weigh as much as aluminum fins either.

The length of the fin on your board can vary greatly. Some fins are 5-8.5 inches long. The longer fins are good because, they don have to be as long to get the same surface area in the water. They will track better than a fin that is shorter. Also the long fins work better on rails and ramps because, they are short enough that they will not make a lot of contact with the rail and ramp. Shorter fins must be taller to get the same amount of tracking.

A shallower fin will not track as good as a deeper one. But a deeper fin will have more drag in the water, and it will not release off the wake as fast.

It is somewhat of a trend for wake skaters to ride with no fins.

Wakeskate Manufacturers

The following manufacturers make and sell wakeskates: Blecha Boards, Byerly Wakeskates, Cassette, CWB, Double Up, Gator Boards, Hyperlite, Integrity, Kampus, Liquid Force, Mutiny, Oak, Obrien, Origin, Remote, Ronix, Goodwood, Sattelyte and One Thirty One Industries.

Getting up

Deep water start

Mitchell Bieberich performs a deep water start

There are a variety of techniques for getting up on a wakeskate, but they all follow the same basic rules. Orient your body vertically, or upright in the water with the board deck under your feet. When the boat starts to pull forward, you will want to bring your feet and the board up in front of you. The pressure of the oncoming water should force the board to stick to your feet. Straighten your arms so that when the boat takes off you will not hurt your arms from the jolt. Your knees should be bent so that you can keep your center of gravity low. If your center of gravity is too high, then you would be pulled over your feet. When you have done all of the previously stated requirements, tell the boat driver to start going. When the boat starts to move, the water will push on the bottom of the wakeskate, forcing your upper body to rise up out of the water. Let the boat do the work for you. If you try to muscle your way through things, and force yourself to get up, you will end up getting your arms jerked. Getting up on a wakeskate is the exact same procedure you use to get up on a wakeboard. The only difference is that your feet are not connected with bindings. The pressure from the boat will force the board to be stuck to your feet, therefore it will…

New 2008 Bridal Wedding Dress/Gowns freed size ,



Chinese language usage

The English loanword cheongsam comes from chuhngsam, the Cantonese pronunciation of the Shanghainese term znze or zansae (, ‘long shirt/dress’), by which the original tight-fitting form was first known. The Shanghainese name was somewhat at odds with usage in Mandarin and other Chinese dialects, where chngshn (the Mandarin pronunciation of ) refers to an exclusively male dress (see changshan) and the female version is known as a qipao.

In Hong Kong, where many Shanghai tailors fled to after the Communist takeover of the Mainland, the word chuhngsam may refer to either male or female garments. The word keipo (qipao) is either a more formal term for the female chuhngsam, or is used for the two-piece cheongsam variant that is popular in China. Western countries mostly follow the original Shanghainese usage and apply the name cheongsam to a garment worn by women.

History

Ladies of Chinese Imperial Court in Qing Dynast , south african dress .

A woman in the traditional loose fitting baggy qipao worn with an over jacke , princess wedding dresses .

When the Manchu ruled China during the Qing Dynasty, certain social strata emerged. Among them were the Banners (q), mostly Manchu, who as a group were called Banner People ( pinyin: q rn). Manchu women typically wore a one-piece dress that came to be known as the qpo ( or banner quilt). The qipao fitted loosely and hung straight down the body. Under the dynastic laws after 1644, all Han Chinese were forced to wear a queue and dress in Manchurian qipao instead of traditional Han Chinese clothing (), under penalty of death. In the following 300 years, the qipao became the adopted clothing of the Chinese, and was eventually tailored to suit the preferences of the population. Such was its popularity that the garment form survived the political turmoil of the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing Dynasty.

The original qipao was wide and loose. It covered most of the woman’s body, revealing only the head, hands, and the tips of the toes. The baggy nature of the clothing also served to conceal the figure of the wearer regardless of age. With time, though, the qipao were tailored to become more form fitting and revealing. The modern version, which is now recognized popularly in China as the “standard” qipao, was first developed in Shanghai after 1900, after the Qing Dynasty fell. People eagerly sought a more modernized style of dress and transformed the old qipao to suit their tastes. Slender and form fitting with a high cut, it contrasted sharply with the traditional qipao. However, it was high-class courtesans and socialites in the city that would make these redesigned tight fitting qipao popular at that time. In Shanghai it was first known as zansae or “long dress” ( = Mandarin: chngshn, Shanghainese: zansae, Cantonese: chuhngsam), and it is this name that survives in English as the “cheongsam”.

The modernized version is noted for accentuating the figures of women, and as such was popular as a dress for high society. As Western fashions changed, the basic cheongsam design changed too, introducing high-necked sleeveless dresses, bell-like sleeves, and the black lace frothing at the hem of a ball gown. By the 1940s, cheongsam came in a wide variety of fabrics with an equal variety of accessories.

The 1949 Communist Revolution ended the cheongsam and other fashions in Shanghai, but the Shanghainese emigrants and refugees brought the fashion to Hong Kong where it has remained popular. Recently there has been a revival of the Shanghainese cheongsam in Shanghai and elsewhere in Mainland China; the Shanghainese style functions now mostly as a stylish party dress.

Modern use

In the 1950s, women in the workforce in Hong Kong started to wear more functional cheongsam made of wool, twill, and other materials. Most were tailor fitted and often came with a matching jacket. The dresses were a fusion of Chinese tradition with modern styles. Cheongsam were commonly replaced by more comfortable clothing such as sweaters, jeans, business suits and skirts. Due to its restrictive nature, it is now mainly worn as formal wear for important occasions. They are sometimes worn by politicians and film artists in Taiwan and Hong Kong. They are shown in some Chinese movies such as in the 1960s film, The World of Suzie Wong, where actress Nancy Kwan made the cheongsam briefly fashionable in western culture. However, they are sometimes used as Halloween costumes in some western countries. They are also commonly seen in beauty contests, along with swim suits. They are only common in daily living for some people as a uniform.

A modern style qipao

Women in video games are often in cheongsam, so cosplay showgirls may wear a cheongsam in show times. These cheongsam usually made of rubber or silk, reflective in color to catch camera focus, with short sleeves and the bottom of the cheongsam to mid-thigh. They are commonly worn with short socks and white shoes.

Some airlines in Mainland China and Taiwan have cheongsam uniforms for their women flight attendants and ground workers such as China Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, Hainan Airlines, and Xiamen Airlines. They are in a plain color, hemmed to just above the knee, with a close fitting wool suit jacket of the same color as the cheongsam. The workers wear stockings and low heeled shoes. Their working places are often air-conditioned so they remain cool.

A few primary schools and some secondary schools in Hong Kong, especially older schools established by Christian missionaries, use a plain rimmed sky blue cotton and/or dark blue velvet (for winter) cheongsam with the metal school badge right under the stand-up collar to be closed with a metal hook and eye as the official uniform for their female students. The schools which use this standard include True Light Girls’ College, St. Paul’s Co-educational College, Heep Yunn School, St. Stephen’s Girls’ College, Ying Wa Girls’ School, etc. These cheongsam are usually straight, with no waist shaping, and the cheongsam hem must reach mid-thigh. The cheongsam fit closely to the neck, and the stiff collar is hooked closed, despite the tropical humid and hot weather. Although the skirts have short slits, they are too narrow to allow students to walk in long strides. The seams above the slits often split when walking and are repeatedly sewed. Many schools also require underskirts to be worn with the cheongsam. The underskirt is a white cotton full slip, hemmed slightly shorter than the cheongsam, and are slit at the sides like the cheongsam, although the slits are deeper. A white cotton undershirt is often worn underneath the cheongsam. The cheongsam’s length, styling, color and sleeve length varies between schools. Many students feel it an ordeal, yet it is a visible manifestation of the strict discipline that is the hallmark of prestigious secondary schools in Hong Kong and many students and their parents like that. In summer wearing this for a school day would be sweaty and un-hygienic. Some rebellious students express their dissatisfaction with this tradition by wearing their uniform with the stand-up collar intentionally left unhooked or hemmed above their knees. The Ying Wa and True Light Schools have set questionnaires to their students about uniform reforms but not passed. But Madam Lau Kam Lung Secondary School of Miu Fat Buddhist Monastery ended their cheongsam uniform in 1990 after receiving student unions suggestions.

Many waitresses in Chinese restaurants over the world wear suits and skirts but some, especially the receptionists, wear cheongsam uniforms. These cheongsam (referred to as qipao in China) are long, often foot-length or floor-length. They have slits high to the waist or hip, and are usually sleeveless or have only cap sleeves. They are often made of brightly-colored silk or satin with rich Chinese embroidery. Some nightclub waitresses, ritual girls in ceremonies, and competitors in Chinese beauty competitions wear similar cheongsam uniforms. They may wear pantyhose but not an underskirt so walking shows their legs. These uniforms are considered too sexy for ordinary wear so they are worn and kept at work. The waitresses change into casual clothes before going home.

In the 2008 Summer Olympics, cheongsams were the uniforms for the medal bearers. They were also worn by female members of the Swedish team and of the Spanish team in the opening ceremony, with the national colors of blue and yellow.

Similar garments

The Vietnamese o di bears similarity to the cheongsam, as does the Tibetan national dress.

See also

Hanfu/Han Chinese clothing

Mao suit

References

^ “Ch’i-p’ao”. Encyclopdia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/110067/chi-pao. Retrieved on 2008-11-18.

^ ?

^ . (The qipao keep the affections of Hong Kong girls schools of 100 years by Li Qihong)(2003-05-16). http://woman.zaobao.com/pages2/woman190503a.html

^ Madam Lau Kam Lung Secondary School of Miu Fat Buddhist Monastery

Bai Yun, Zhongguo lao qipao- lao zhaopian lao guanggo jianzheng qipao de yanbian (The traditional qiapo of China: evidence of its [stylistic] changes in old photographs and old advertisements), Beijing: Guangming ribao chubanshe, 2006.

Bao Mingxin and Ma Li, eds, Zhongguo qipao (China qipao), Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua chubanshe, 1998.

Chang, Eileen (Zhang Ailing), Chronicle of Changing Clothes, Andrew F. Jones. trans., positions: east asia culture critique 11, 2 (Fall, 2003): 427 441.

Clark, Hazel, The Cheongsam, Hong Kong, Oxford University Press, 2000.

Finnane, Antonia, Changing Clothes in China: Fashion, History, Nation, Columbia University…

Multi Wear Sari Skirt ,



Fashion

Use varies with current trends in fashion, eg. during the 80s and 90s they were a popular item on the catwalks with popularity dwindling in the early 2000s[citation needed].

Suitability

A short leather skirt might be regarded as more sexy than an equivalent short skirt of other material, and thus as more suitable to a night out than as office wear. A long leather skirt might look professional and chic without looking too sexy for the office.

Subcultur , strapless prom dresses .

Leather garments, including skirts, see use in goth and BDSM , full skirts .

Gender

Like other skirts in western culture they are almost exclusively worn by women, but there are movements, such as MIS that fight for making them acceptable for everyday wear by men.

See also

Leather

Leather fetishism

Gothic fashion

List of people known to wear leather skirts

Christina Applegate

Victoria Beckham

Pat Benatar

Kiran Chetry

Katherine Heigl

Dolly Parton

Denise Richards

Diane Sawyer

Carol Vorderman

Penny Smith

Nicky Hilton

v d e

Clothing

Materials

Cotton Fur Leather Linen Nylon Polyester Rayon Silk Spandex Wool

Tops

Blouse Crop top Dress shirt Halterneck Henley shirt Hoodie Jersey Guernsey (clothing) Polo shirt Shirt Sleeveless shirt Sweater T-shirt Tube top Turtleneck

Trousers or pants

Bell-bottoms Bermuda shorts Bondage pants Boxer shorts Capri pants Cargo pants Culottes Cycling shorts Dress pants Jeans Jodhpurs Overall Parachute pants Shorts Sweatpants Windpants

Skirts

Ballerina skirt Hobble skirt Jean skirt Job skirt Leather skirt Kilt Pencil skirt Poodle skirt Prairie skirt Miniskirt Microskirt Slip Skort Train

Dresses

Ball gown Cocktail dress Evening gown Gown Jumper dress Little black dress Petticoat Sari Sundress Tea gown Wedding dress

Suits and uniforms

Academic dress Afrocentric suit Black tie Clerical clothing Court dress Gymslip Jumpsuit Lab coat Mao suit Morning dress Pantsuit Red Sea rig Scrubs Stroller Tang suit Tuxedo White tie

Outerwear

Abaya Academic gown Anorak Apron Blazer Cloak Coat Duffle coat Frock coat Jacket Greatcoat Hoodie Men’s undergarments Opera coat Overcoat Pea coat Poncho Raincoat Redingote Robe Shawl Shrug Ski suit Sleeved blanket Top coat Trench coat Vest Waistcoat Windbreaker

Underwear

Boxer briefs Boxer shorts Brassiere Briefs Compression shorts Corselet Corset Knickers Lingerie Long underwear Panties Teddy Trunks Undershirt

Accessories

Belly chain Belt Bow tie Chaps Earring Gaiters Gloves Handbag Leg warmer Leggings Necklace Necktie Scarf Stocking Sunglasses Suspenders Tights

Footwear

Athletic shoe Boot Dress shoe Hosiery Pump Sandal Shoe Slipper Sock

Headwear

Balaclava Cap Fascinator Hat Headband Helmet Hijab Hood Mantilla Niqab Sombrero Turban Ushanka Veil

Nightwear

Babydoll Blanket sleeper Negligee Nightcap Nightgown Nightshirt Peignoir Pajamas

Clothing parts

Back closure Buckle Button Buttonhole Collar Cuff Elastic Fly Hemline Hook-and-eye Lapel Neckline Pocket Shoulder pad Shoulder strap Sleeve Snap Strap Velcro Waistline Zipper

National costume

Abaya Aboyne dress o b ba o di o t thn Barong Tagalog Baro’t saya Bunad Cheongsam Dashiki Deel Dhoti Dirndl Djellaba Gho & Kira Hanbok Han Chinese clothing Jellabiya Jilbb Kebaya Kente cloth Kilt Kimono Lederhosen Sampot Sarafan Sari Sarong Scottish dress

Historical garments

Banyan Bedgown Bodice Braccae Breeches Breeching Brunswick Chemise Chiton Chlamys Doublet Exomis Farthingale Frock Himation Hose Houppelande Jerkin Justacorps Palla Peplos Polonaise Smock-frock Stola Toga Tunic

History and surveys

Africa Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Ancient world Anglo-Saxon Byzantine Clothing terminology Dress code Early Medieval Europe Formal wear Hanfu History of clothing and textiles History of Western fashion series (1100s-2000s) Sumptuary law Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Undergarments Vietnam Women wearing pants

See also

Adaptive clothing Adult diaper Bathrobe Costume Fashion Fursuit Locking clothing

This clothing-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories: 1980s fashion | 1990s fashion | 2000s fashion | Skirts | Fetish clothing | Leather clothing | Clothing stubsHidden categories: Articles that may contain original research from October 2007 | All articles that may contain original research | Articles lacking sources from October 2007 | All articles lacking sources | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2008

HP OEM Fuser Film Sleeve ,



History

Hard disk-based DVRs

Back view of a TiVo Series2 5xx-generation unit.

The two early consumer DVRs, ReplayTV and TiVo, were launched at the 1998 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. Microsoft also demonstrated a unit with DVR capability but commercial availability of this software would have to wait until the end of 1999 for full DVR features in Dish Network’s DISHplayer receivers. TiVo shipped their first units on March 31, 1999, and to this day the last Friday in March is celebrated as a company holiday known as ‘Blue Moon’. Although ReplayTV won the “Best of Show” award in the video category with Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen as an early investor and board member, it was TiVo that went on to much greater commercial success. While early legal action by media companies forced ReplayTV to remove many features such as automatic commercial skip and the sharing of recordings over the Internet, newer devices have steadily regained these functions while adding complementary abilities, such as recording onto DVDs and programming and remote control facilities using PDAs, networked PCs, and Web browsers. The label PVR has almost fallen completely into disuse in the trade news media in favor of the more popular DVR descriptor. The name PVR never really caught on, although its use has not entirely vanished. As of December 29, 2008, Armstrong Cable still uses PVR terminology.[citation needed]

Hard disk-based DVRs make the “time shifting” feature (traditionally done by a VCR) much more convenient, and also allow for “trick modes” such as pausing live TV, instant replay of interesting scenes, chasing playback where a recording can be viewed before it has been completed, and skipping of advertising. Most DVRs use the MPEG format for compressing the digitized video signals. When there is recorded time left to be played it is often referred to as “future credit” or “the power”.[citation needed] Despite the yearnings of customers, one cannot purchase more “future credit” from a service provider , lan adapter usb .

DVRs tied to a video servic , usb cdrom .

At the 1999 CES show Dish Network demonstrated the hardware that would later have DVR capability with the assistance of Microsoft software . Users would have to wait until June 1999 for simple time shifting capabilities in the 7100, rebranded as the DISHPlayer satellite receiver, which also included WebTV Networks internet TV. By the end of 1999 the Dishplayer had full DVR capabilities and within a year, over 200,000 units were sold.

In the UK, DVRs are often referred to as “plus boxes” (such as BSKYB’s Sky+ and Virgin Media’s V+ which integrates an HD capability, and the subscription free Freesat+ and Freeview+). British Sky Broadcasting markets a popular combined EPG and DVR as Sky+. South African based Africa Satellite TV beamer Multichoice recently launched their DVR which is available on their Dstv platform. In addition to ReplayTV and TiVo, there are a number of other suppliers of digital terrestrial (DTT) DVRs, including Thomson, Topfield, Fusion, Pace Micro Technology, Humax and AC Ryan Playon.

Many satellite and cable companies are incorporating DVR functions into their set-top box, such as with DirecTiVo, DISHPlayer/DishDVR, Scientific Atlanta Explorer 8xxx from Time Warner, Motorola 6xxx from Comcast, Moxi Media Center by Digeo (available through Charter, Adelphia, Sunflower, Bend Broadband, and soon Comcast and other cable companies), or Sky+. Astro introduced their DVR system, called Astro MAX, which was the first PVR in Malaysia. Sadly, it was phased out two years after its introduction.

In the case of digital television, there is no encoding necessary in the DVR since the signal is already a digitally encoded MPEG stream. The DVR simply stores the digital stream directly to disk. Having the broadcaster involved with, and sometimes subsidizing, the design of the DVR can lead to features such as the ability to use interactive TV on recorded shows, pre-loading of programs, or directly recording encrypted digital streams. It can, however, also force the manufacturer to implement non-skippable advertisements and automatically-expiring recordings.

In the United States, the FCC has ruled that starting on July 1, 2007, consumers will be able to purchase a set-top box from a third-party company, rather than being forced to purchase or rent the set-top box from their cable company. This ruling only applies to “navigation devices,” otherwise known as a cable television set-top box, and not to the security functions that control the user access to the content of the cable operator. The overall net effect on DVRs and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market.

Introduction of dual tuners

In 2003 many Satellite and Cable providers introduced dual-tuner DVRs. In the UK, BSkyB introduced their first PVR Sky+ with dual tuner support in 2001. These machines have two tuners within the same receiver to operate independently of one another. The main use for this feature is the capability to record a live program while watching another live program simultaneously or to record two programs at the same time while watching a previously recorded one. Some dual-tuner DVRs also have the ability to operate two separate television sets at the same time. The PVR manufactured by UEC (Durban, South Africa) and used by Multichoice has the ability to view two programs while recording a third using a triple tuner. With some machines, such as the Scientific Atlanta 8300DVB PVR, it is possible to view one program whilst recording two other programs according to the users preference.

Integrated LCD DVR

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Integrated LCD DVR

Front view: Looks like a typical LCD monitor

Media type

LCD DVR

Integrated LCD DVR

Rear view: DVR connectors are at the bottom, the HDD is at the top left.

Media type

LCD DVR

Integrated LCD DVR

Side view: Even with all the DVR components inside the LCD monitor is still slim.

Media type

LCD DVR

DVRs integrated into LCD displays also exist. These systems let the user to simplify the wiring and installation, and they have to use only one device instead of two.

There are examples of security systems integrated into such DVRs, and thus they’re capable of recording more input streams in parallel. Such devices can also be used as disguised observation systems, displaying pictures or videos as typical store display.

VESA Compatible DVRs

VESA Compatible DVR

The underside of a VESA compatible DVR

Media type

DVR

Developed by

Lorex Technology

VESA compatible DVR are designed small and light enough to mount to the back of an LCD monitor that has clear access to VESA mounting holes (100×100mm). This allows users to use their own personal monitor to save on cost and space.

PC-based DVRs

Software and hardware is available which can turn personal computers running Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X into DVRs, and is a popular option for home-theater PC (HTPC) enthusiasts.

Linux

There are many free DVR applications available for Linux, each released as free and open source software under the GNU General Public License:

MythTV

Freevo

VDR

LinuxMCE

A commercial and proprietary application called SageTV is available for most popular Linux distributions.

Mac OS

Elgato makes a series of DVR devices called EyeTV. The software supplied with each device is also called EyeTV, and is available separately for use on compatible third-party tuners from manufacturers such as Pinnacle, TerraTec, and Hauppauge.

SageTV provides DVR software for the Mac with built in placeshifting for watching TV remotely and sells and supports the Hauppauge HVR-950, myTV.PVR and HDHomeRun hardware with its DVR software. SageTV software also includes the ability to watch YouTube and other online video with a remote control.

MythTV (see above) also runs under Mac OS X, but most recording devices are currently only supported under Linux. Precompiled binaries are available for the MythTV front-end, allowing a Mac to watch video from (and control) a MythTV server running under Linux.

Apple provides applications in the FireWire software developer kit which allow any Mac with a FireWire port to record the MPEG2 transport stream from a FireWire equipped cable box (for example: Motorola 62xx, including HD streams). Applications can also change channels on the cable box via the firewire interface. Only broadcast channels can be recorded as the rest of the channels are encrypted. iRecord is a free scheduled-recording program derived from this SDK.

Windows

There are several free DVR applications available for Microsoft Windows including GB-PVR, MediaPortal, and Orb (web-based remote interface). DScaler also has DVR support in the works.

There are also several proprietary applications available including CyberLink, SageTV, Beyond TV, Showshifter, InterVideo WinDVR, the R5000-HD and Meedio (now a dead product - Yahoo! bought most of the company’s technology and discontinued the Meedio line, and rebranded the software Yahoo! Go - TV, which is now a free product but only works in the U.S.).

Windows Media Center is a DVR software by Microsoft bundled with the Media Center edition of Windows XP as well as Home Premium and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista.

…

7.2V to 18V Cordless Drill/Driver Set ,



Overview

The DVI interface uses a digital protocol in which the desired illumination of pixels is transmitted as binary data. When the display is driven at its native resolution, it will read each number and apply that brightness to the appropriate pixel. In this way, each pixel in the output buffer of the source device corresponds directly to one pixel in the display device, whereas with an analog signal the appearance of each pixel may be affected by its adjacent pixels as well as by electrical noise and other forms of analog distortion.

Previous standards such as the analog VGA were designed for CRT-based devices and thus did not use discrete time display addressing. As the analog source transmits each horizontal line of the image, it varies its output voltage to represent the desired brightness. In a CRT device, this is used to vary the intensity of the scanning beam as it moves across the screen.

DVI cable connectors are designed in such a way as not to allow the user to connect the cable in an incorrect position or orientation. DVI connectors are available in five models, differing in the way they handle analog or digital transfers.

In the digital transfer one or two channels are present. Video and monitor cards which are exclusively digital cannot be connected to analog, but can be connected to equipment that handles both analog and digital signals. The DVI standard also supports the Display Data Channel (DDC) and the Extended Display Identification Data (EDID), which allows computers to communicate with different monitor extensions , wireless wheel mouse .

“DVI-I” stands for “DVI-Integrated” and supports both digital and analog transfers, so it works with both digital and analog Visual Display Units. “DVI-D” stands for “DVI-Digital” and supports digital transfers only , sony web cam .

DVI to HDMI

Unlike HDMI, DVI usually carries no audio data in its TMDS channel. However, as DVI is for the most part compatible with HDMI (see Compatibility with DVI), it is just as possible to support including audio data by incorporating the audio in the TMDS signal. Because DVI displays typically have no sound capabilities, a DVI to HDMI adapter/cable can then be used to connect the device to an HDMI display. For instance, this feature allows PCs to send audiovisual data to a high definition television. It is increasingly found on modern computer graphics cards (e.g. cards by Nvidia and ATI) and certain motherboards with integrated graphics.

Technical discussion

The data format used by DVI is based on the PanelLink serial format devised by the semiconductor manufacturer Silicon Image Inc. This uses Transition Minimized Differential Signaling (TMDS). A single DVI link consists of four twisted pairs of wires (red, green, blue, and clock) to transmit 24 bits per pixel. The timing of the signal almost exactly matches that of an analog video signal. The picture is transmitted line by line with blanking intervals between each line and each frame, and without packetization. No compression is used and there is no support for only transmitting changed parts of the image. This means that the whole frame is constantly re-transmitted. The specification (see below for link) does, however, include a paragraph on “Conversion to Selective Refresh” (under 1.2.2), suggesting this feature for future devices.

With a single DVI link, the largest resolution possible at 60 Hz is 2.75 megapixels (including blanking interval). For practical purposes, this allows a maximum screen resolution at 60 Hz of 1915 x 1436 pixels (standard 4:3 ratio), 1854 x 1483 pixels (5:4 ratio) or 2098 x 1311 (widescreen 8:5 ratio). The DVI connector therefore has provision for a second link, containing another set of red, green, and blue twisted pairs. When more bandwidth is required than is possible with a single link, the second link is enabled, and alternate pixels may be transmitted on each, allowing resolutions up to 4 megapixels at 60 Hz. The DVI specification mandates a fixed single link maximum pixel clock frequency of 165 MHz, where all display modes that require less than this must use single link mode, and all those that require more must switch to dual link mode. When both links are in use, the pixel rate on each may exceed 165 MHz. The second link can also be used when more than 24 bits per pixel is required, in which case it carries the least significant bits. The data pairs carry binary data at ten times the pixel clock reference frequency, for a maximum data rate of 1.65 Gbit/s x 3 data pairs for a single DVI link.

Like modern analog VGA connectors, the DVI connector includes pins for the display data channel (DDC). DDC2 (a newer version of DDC) allows the graphics adapter to read the monitor’s extended display identification data (EDID). If a display supports both analog and digital signals in one input, each input can host a distinct EDID. If both receivers are active, analog EDID is used.

The maximum length of DVI cables is not included in the specification since it is dependent on bandwidth requirements (the resolution of the image being transmitted). In general, cable lengths up to 4.5 m (15 ft) will work for displays at resolutions of 1920 x 1200. Cable lengths up to 15 m (50 ft) can be used with displays at resolutions up to 1280 x 1024. For longer distances, the use of a DVI booster is recommended to mitigate signal degradation. DVI boosters may or may not use an external power supply.

Connector

Male DVI connector pins (view of plug)

Male M1-DA connector pins (view of plug)

Color coded female DVI connector with pin descriptions

See also Mini-DVI and Micro-DVI

The DVI connector usually contains pins to pass the DVI-native digital video signals. In the case of dual-link systems, additional pins are provided for the second set of data signals.

As well as digital signals, the DVI connector includes pins providing the same analog signals found on a VGA connector, allowing a VGA monitor to be connected with a simple plug adapter. This feature was included in order to make DVI universal, as it allows either type of monitor (analog or digital) to be operated from the same connector.

The DVI connector on a device is therefore given one of four names, depending on which signals it implements:

DVI-D (digital only)

DVI-A (analog only)

DVI-I (integrated, digital & analog)

M1-DA (integrated, digital, analog & USB)

The connector also includes provision for a second data link for high resolution displays, though many devices do not implement this. In those that do, the connector is sometimes referred to as DVI-DL (dual link).

The long flat pin on a DVI-I connector is wider than the same pin on a DVI-D connector, so it is not possible to connect a male DVI-I to a female DVI-D by removing the 4 analog pins. It is possible, however, to connect a male DVI-D cable to a female DVI-I connector. Many flat panel LCD monitors have only the DVI-D connection so that a DVI-D male to DVI-D male cable will suffice when connecting the monitor to a computer’s DVI-I female connector.

DVI is the only widespread video standard that includes analog and digital transmission options in the same connector. Competing standards are exclusively digital: these include a system using low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS), known by its proprietary names FPD (for Flat-Panel Display) Link and FLATLINK; and its successors, the LVDS Display Interface (LDI) and OpenLDI.

Some new DVD players, TV sets (including HDTV sets) and video projectors have DVI/HDCP connectors; these are physically the same as DVI connectors but transmit an encrypted signal using the HDCP protocol for copy protection. Computers with DVI video connectors can use many DVI-equipped HDTV sets as a display; however, due to Digital Rights Management, it is not clear whether such systems will eventually be able to play protected content, as the link is not encrypted.

USB signals are not incorporated into the connector, but were earlier incorporated into the VESA Plug and Display connector used by InFocus on their projector systems, and in the Apple Display Connector, which was used by Apple Computer until 2005.

The DMS-59 connector is a way to combine two analog and two digital signals in one plug. It is commonly used when a single graphics card has two outputs.

M1-DA connectors are sometimes labeled as DVI-M1; they are used for the VESA Enhanced Video Connector and VESA Plug and Display schemes.

Specifications

Digital

Minimum clock frequency: 25.175 MHz

Maximum clock frequency in single link mode: Capped at 165 MHz (up to 3.96 Gbit/s)

Maximum clock frequency in dual link mode: Limited only by cable quality (up to 7.92 Gbit/s)

Pixels per clock cycle: 1 (single link) or 2 (dual link)

Bits per pixel: 24 (single and dual link) or 48 (dual link only)

Example display modes (single link):

HDTV (1920 1080) @ 60 Hz with CVT-RB blanking (139 MHz)

UXGA (1600 1200) @ 60 Hz with GTF blanking (161 MHz)

WUXGA (1920 1200) @ 60 Hz with CVT-RB blanking (154 MHz)

SXGA (1280 1024) @ 85 Hz with GTF blanking (159 MHz)

WXGA+ (1440 x 900) @ 60 Hz (107 MHz)

WQUXGA (3840 2400) @ 17 Hz (164 MHz)

Example display modes (dual link):

QXGA (2048 1536) @ 75 Hz with GTF blanking (2 170 MHz)

HDTV (1920 1080) @ 85 Hz with GTF blanking (2 126 MHz)

WQXGA (2560 1600) @ 60 Hz with GTF blanking (2 174 MHz) (30-inch (762 mm) Apple, Dell, Gateway, HP, NEC, Quinux, and Samsung…

Women’s Dress Shoes ,



Components

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (July 2008)

Occasionally included in the costume (and now associated with the name) is a ‘push-up bra’ to enhance the female bust. The dress usually has a short, revealing skirt (although sometimes this can be long. The dress is frequently corseted in the front, or may include a pinafore. A wide variety of costumes are manufactured and marketed under the rench maid description today, or if one has creativity, time and sewing skills, the costume can be easily and cheaply made. The manufactured costumes range from fairly modest dresses extending well down the thigh or above the knees to transparent chiffon fabric or outright lingerie ensembles that cover very little.

The classic French maid costume is usually a short and clingy dress which is frequently corseted in the front; ideally silk, satin, or a fabric resembling it trimmed with shirred white lace with a revealing neckline. Typically, they include a small white apron or a pinafore. The skirt area of the dress is sometimes pleated.

Common accessories include a frill worn in the hair or a tiara, a feather duster, and sometimes white lace cuffs and collar. If the dress has sleeves, they are usually short with shoulder puffs. If the dress has an apron, sometimes it is shaped like a heart with white lace fringes on the hems. If knickers are worn with it, they are usually white and ruffled,[citation needed] and the dress is sometimes short enough to display them, especially when the wearer bends over. A corset or a layered white petticoat may be worn under the dress. The ensemble is almost always completed with black stockings and high heels , wholesale wedding dresses .

Wea , best bridesmaid dresses .

The costumes are frequently worn to costume parties, and also used in drama/theater. They are sometimes worn for sexual roleplaying or by BDSM practitioners, either on brief occasions, or as a routine form of servitude to the dominant partner.

Among cross-dressing female-dominated men, there is also an extensive Sissy (transgender) subculture with men roleplaying as submissive “sissy maids” wearing a feminine French maid costume.

French Maid costumes also feature in mainstream media from time to time. Notable films include Joanne Whalley in The Man Who Knew Too Little (1997), and Colleen Camp as a sexy French maid in Clue (film) (1985), a murder mystery spoof in which she becomes a suspect, and later, a victim. In Friends with Money (2006), Jennifer Aniston dresses as a French maid for her boyfriend, first vacuuming and using a feather duster, then making love whilst still in costume, thus fulfilling all the elements of the standard fantasy role. Aniston played the maid seductress again in a guest role on the 3rd episode of the 3rd season of the NBC TV series 30 Rock. And on the Desperate Housewives series, Lynette (Felicity Huffman) wears a French maid outfit she bought at a lingerie store to spice up her marriage.[episode needed]

References

See also

Soubrette

Clothing fetish

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