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Small Parakeet T Perch ,



Etymology

Artist’s rendition of Port Jackson, the site where Sydney was established, viewed from the South Head. (From A Voyage to Terra Australis.)

The name Australia is derived from the Latin Australis, meaning “Southern”. Legends of an “unknown land of the south” (terra australis incognita) date back to Roman times and were commonplace in medieval geography but were not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. In 1521 Spaniards were among the first Europeans to sail the Pacific Ocean. The first use of the word Australia in English was in 1625, in “A note of Australia del Espritu Santo, written by Master Hakluyt”, published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus. The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used by Dutch East India Company officials in Batavia to refer to the newly discovered land to the south in 1638. Australia was used in a 1693 translation of Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Dcouverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe, a 1676 French novel by Gabriel de Foigny under the pen-name Jacques Sadeur. Alexander Dalrymple then used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean (1771), to refer to the entire South Pacific region. In 1793, George Shaw and Sir James Smith published Zoology and Botany of New Holland, in which they wrote of “the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland”. It also appeared on a 1799 chart by James Wilson.

The name Australia was popularised by Matthew Flinders, who, as early as 1804, pushed for the name to be formally adopted. When preparing his manuscript and charts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis, he was persuaded by his patron Sir Joseph Banks to use the term Terra Australis as this was the name most familiar to the public. Flinders did so, but allowed himself the footnote:

“Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth. , wooden bird house .

This is the only occurrence of the word Australia in that text; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown’s General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown makes use of the adjectival form Australian throughout, this being the first known use of that form. Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name: the name came gradually to be accepted over the following ten years , stuffed cats .

Lachlan Macquarie, a Governor of New South Wales, subsequently used the word in his dispatches to England, and on 12 December 1817 recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.

The word Australia in Australian English is pronounced [stlj, -li]. Since early in the 20th century the country is sometimes referred to locally and internationally as Oz.N5 Aussie (less frequently spelt Ozzie, better representing the pronunciation) is common colloquially as an adjective, and as a noun referring to an Australian.N6

History

Main article: History of Australia

Human habitation of Australia is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. These first Australians may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians; they may have arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now South-East Asia. Most of these people were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers. Their cultural practices have always been distinct from those of the mainland Aborigines.[citation needed]

A replica of Lieutenant Cook’s ship HM Bark Endeavour in Cooktown Harbour

The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland was made by the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon, who sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in 1606. During the 17th century, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called New Holland, but they made no attempt at settlement. In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain.[citation needed]

Cook’s discoveries prepared the way for establishment of a new penal colony. The British Crown Colony of New South Wales began a settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip on 26 January 1788. This date was later to become Australia’s national day, Australia Day. Van Diemen’s Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829. Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia. South Australia was founded as a “free province”hat is, it was never a penal colony. Victoria and Western Australia were also founded “free” but later accepted transported convicts. The transportation of convicts to the colony of New South Wales ceased in 1848 after a campaign by the settlers.

Port Arthur, Tasmania was Australia’s largest gaol for transported convicts.

The Indigenous Australian population, estimated at 350,000 at the time of European settlement, declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly because of infectious disease. The “Stolen Generation” (removal of Aboriginal children from their families), which historians such as Henry Reynolds have argued could be considered genocide by some definitions, may have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population.

Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some conservative commentators, such as former Prime Minister Howard, as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons. Historian Keith Windschuttle has argued that the dominant historical interpretation of the treatment of Aboriginal people on the frontiers of white settlement in Australia amounts to a fabrication. He claims this is the result of work done by a generation of politically inspired academics. That work, he charges, is characterised by poor historical method and by lack of evidence, and they have invented stories, made up figures, suppressed evidence, falsely referenced sources and deceived their readers.

This debate is known within Australia as the History Wars. Following the 1967 referendum, the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of landative titleas not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius (literally “no one’s land”, effectively “empty land”) at the time of European occupation.[citation needed]

The Last Post is played at an ANZAC Day ceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in most suburbs and towns.

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the Eureka Stockade rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence, and international shipping. On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting. The Commonwealth of Australia was born and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed from a part of New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra. (Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed.) The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.[citation needed]

Australian soldiers display Japanese flags they captured at Kaiapit, New Guinea in 1943.

In 1914 Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Liberal Party and the incoming Labor Party. The Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front. Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nationts first major military action. The Kokoda Track Campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.

Britain’s Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942, but backdated it to the beginning of World War II to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during the war. The shock of the UK’s defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also encouraged. As a result, Australia’s demography, culture, and self-image have been transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were…

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Technique

Ideally, Kite landboarding is done in large empty areas where the wind is constant and without obstructions such as trees or people. Large hard-packed sandy beaches are seen as being ideal locations because of the large space available and the favourable wind conditions.

The rider starts off by getting the kite into the neutral position overhead. Once he is strapped onto the board, he can get the kite to pull him across the ground by moving the kite in either direction, generating a pull. As in Kitesurfing, competent riders are able to “get some air” which is essentially maneuvering the kite to pull you into the air, normally several feet up. More competent riders are able to do several moves in the air such as grabs, rotations and flips.

Tricks

More advanced riders can do a number of tricks that are mainly based on those found in Kitesurfing and Wakeboarding. These include tricks while the rider in the air which could involve rotations, flips, grabs, or combinations of these tricks. “Board-off” moves are tricks where the rider removes the board from his feet in the air and he can spin or flip it before putting it back on his feet and landing. On the ground, tricks include sliding the board, wheelies and riding toeside (riding with your back to the kite). Various tricks have found the transition from kitesurfing a little hard due to the harder surface of land rather than sea. One such trick is the “kiteloop” which involves looping the kite through the power zone while the kiter is in the air, giving a strong horizontal (and sometimes downwards) pull. In addition to these kitesurfing based tricks there are also a number of skateboarding style accessories that have become popular such as ramps and grinders. In recent years specific Kite landboarding parks have opened with large areas and ramps and other obstacles available.

Equipment

The kite is a large sail, usually made of strong Ripstop nylon, and is flown on either 2, 3, 4 or 5 lines. Any model of kite usually has several different sizes within the range because the stronger the wind is, the smaller the kite used. The kite is controlled via a control bar or a set of handles (kite control systems). There are various different types of kites used in Kite landboarding. Foil type kites, from manufacturers such as FreakDog, Flexifoil , Ozone Kites or Best Kiteboarding can be fixed bridle or de-power systems. Depower systems allow the rider to change the kites angle by moving the bar toward or away from them to power or de-power the kite respectively. Most riders prefer depowerable kites as it is possible to easily adjust the power in case of gusts or an increase in wind speeds. Alternatively “arcs” are growing in popularity thanks to several kites made by Peter Lynn.

There is a vast selection of boards. The landboards tend to be made out of wood, although many riders prefer lighter composite boards. Size and width of the board varies. Longer and wider boards are more stable and tend to be for larger riders or beginners while narrower smaller boards are for smaller people or for pulling off more tricks. Many boards also have suspensions which can be adjusted to preference. These can usually be adjusted by adjusting the actual suspension or by inserting a “shock egg” (an egg shaped rubber shock absorber) into the suspension.The boards also have some similar features to Kitesurfing boards.They have similar style bindings to keep the riders feet locked in. They allow the board to stay with the rider when he is airborne but they are also easy enough to remove in the case of any “board-off” tricks. Many also have a grab handle in the centre of the board in order to facilitate the removing of the board during a trick.

Many riders attach the kite’s handle or control bar via a strap to a harness worn by the rider, allowing the rider to remove his hands from the control system in order to do tricks. The use of a harness also allows a rider to ride for a longer time, as much of the force of the kite is taken off the rider’s arms. For depowerable kites, the harness connection is used to power and depower the kite. There are different types of harnesses (e.g., waist or seat), and selection depends on the personal preference of the rider. Some riders use specially designed snowkiting harnesses that are very similar to those used in rock climbing or just plain rock climbing harnesses. Because harnesses keep the rider attached to the kite, a number of safety measures have been developed. These include easily reachable safety systems actuated by pins. The pins allow the rider to release the connection between the rider and the kite when necessary. Some harnesses also have an easily accessible knife to cut the lines if necessary in an emergency , nylon dog leads .

Other commonly used bits of equipment include a groundstake (in order to hold down the kite when it is landed), a wind meter (to read the exact speed of the wind) as well as various spares, tools and repair tape. In addition various bits of safety equipment described below are essential to the sport , connector harness .

Safety concerns

Due to the power that the kites can generate, riders can hit high speeds and propel themselves several feet in the air. As this is a land-based sport, there have been several concerns about the possibility of injury to the rider or to others. As a result several safety equipment items are used by many riders in this sport. Helmets are essential, especially for the more advanced moves, where a rider may find himself rotating and flipping. Padding, including shoulder and knee pads, can be worn to protect from hard falls. Many kite-flying sites in the UK are introducing measures to only allow riders who have helmets and have valid 3rd party insurance policies. In addition to this, many kite manufacturers have incorporated safety designs in their kites in order to depower the kite in order to stop it dragging the rider after a fall and protecting any other people in the vicinity. These tend to include safety leashes connected to the rider which, when the rider lets go of the kite’s control system, will completely depower the kite and bring it gently back to the ground.

History

A young boy’s 1916 “windmobile”. (Popular Science Monthly, Feb 1916, p170)

An early form of the wheeled landboard was invented by children in New York state in 1916 using roller skates, baby carriage wheels, a wooden board and a cloth sail. With front and rear wheels oiled well, and a brisk breeze blowing, he can travel at a 20 mile-per-hour clip without much difficulty, despite the crude construction of the vehicle.

References

^ A Boy’s Street Boat, Popular Science monthly, Feb 1916, page 170, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=iSYDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0_2#PPA170,M1

External links

ikointl.com - International Kiteboarding Organization

See also

Kite buggy

Kitesurfing

Windsport

Snowkiting

Land sailing

Categories: Water sports | Boardsports | Kites | Individual sportsHidden categories: Vague or ambiguous time

Underwater Breathing System (Air Feeder, Dive, Aerator) ,



History

After the first automobile was manufactured and put on the market in the early 1900, many modifications and adjustments have been implemented to protect those that drive and ride in these vehicles. Most restraints were put into place to protect adults without regard for children, infant through pre-school age. Though child seats were beginning to be manufactured in the early 1930, their purpose was not the safety of children. The purpose was to act as booster seats to bring the child to a height easier for the driving parent to see them. It wasn until 1962 that seats were invented in England by Jeans Ames with the purpose of protecting a child.

Before these seats were invented, rates of death in infants to young children were staggering. Over 2,000 children under the age of fourteen in the United States die every year in automobile accidents. As if the rate of deaths was not enough, another 320,000 are injured each year. These injuries and deaths are not just a result of the severity of the accidents themselves. The staggering numbers, in general, can be related to the amount of children not being properly restrained within the vehicles. These children are either strapped into adult seat belts or completely unrestrained altogether. As a result of these statistics, it is required by law the children under the age of four be secured in safety seats made for children in most of the fifty states. Also, most states require booster seats for children aged four to fourteen dependent upon each individual child age, weight, and height.

Manufacturing

Though there are hundreds of variations of makes and models in the world of child safety seats, the materials used in the manufacturing process are basically the same across the board. Factories in which the seats are put together receive loads of a tough plastic called polypropylene in the form of tiny pellets. This tough plastic is very hard to crack, so it only makes sense that it would be used to form the base of all child safety seats. This plastic is universal in the make of all restraints made for children. A company by the name of Indiana Mills is responsible for manufacturing the adjustment mechanisms and buckles for most child safety seats. Foam makes up the padding of the individual seats, while vinyl and fabrics are used to make up the covers for the seats as well as the harnesses. Among all these products used to make one child safety seat, none are as important as the labels each manufacturer prints according to Federal standards. Printing of these labels is done by subcontracted printers of the manufacturer. These labels must have a permanent place for storage in or on the safety seat and must withstand any tearing so as to make any missing information obvious.

The process of manufacturing the safety seat is what brings all these components together to form a restraint that will help to lower the outrageous statistics of infant and child injury and death rates substantially. In the beginning, the polypropylene is put to use in molding the shells of these seats. Since it arrives in tiny pellet form, these pellets must be melted down and put into a mold the desired shape of the seat. Once this process is completed, it is down the assembly line the product moves. On this assembly line, all of the articles from the outside contractors and suppliers are added to the mold. These things include the foam padding, the fabric covers, the harness, and any buckles or attaching mechanisms. Most importantly, the labels and instructions are attached at this time. Once it is past the assembly line, the product hit the packing department. Here, the seats are wrapped in plastic and packed in cartons which then gets stacked and stored for shipping once ordered.

Types

Child Car Seat

All child safety seats are made and manufactured using the same process, however there are different types of seats for children of different size and age with specific guidelines as to how they should be used. From the time a child is born, they must always ride in an infant seat which is most well known as a rear-facing convertible seat. These seats are designed for a baby that is under twenty pounds and should always remain facing the rear of a vehicle. Seats made specifically for infants are the smallest and have carrying handles for easy carrying and loading. They can be used until the infant is up to 22 through 32 pounds depending on the instructions specified on each individual model. A convertible seat is a child safety restraint that is suggested for the use in the same age and weight range, they are just generally more bulky and can be converted to forward facing child seats as the child grows.

Toddlers and pre-school aged children also are to use convertible seats. It is recommended that the child remains facing the rear of the vehicle as long as possible. The American Academy of Pediatrics recently started recommending to begin front-facing at the age of 2. The child should ride in a convertible seat with a harness until he or she outgrows it around the age of four or at at least sixty-five pounds. Schooled-aged children, which are considered to be at least 4 foot in heights and between the ages of eight and twelve, now upgrade to booster seats. These seats are also front facing and are designed to raise children up so that the belts made for adults fit properly. By this age and size, the child has completely outgrown any rear-facing seat. From the height of 49 and the ages of eight to twelve, children may have outgrown their booster seats and can be permitted to use regular adult seat restraints. It is suggested that, until the age of thirteen, the child remains in the backseat.

Hazard , coffee table aquariums .

Manufacturers go through every step possible to ensure these seats are properly put together and packaged. Although, it is not always guaranteed that the included instructions are always correctly regarded and put to use. Up to 95% of the safety seats that are installed may not be the right seat for the child, may be hooked into the vehicle loosely, may be hooked with an incompatible belt in the vehicle, may have harnesses incorrectly fastened in some way, or may be incorrectly placed in front of air bags. In 1997, six out of ten children who were killed in vehicle crashes were not correctly restrained. , led dog collar .

Along with the problem of instructions not being followed properly, there are other hazards that can effect children involving these safety seats. A recent study attributed many cases of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) to the prolonged sitting /laying position these infants are in when putting the safety seats to use. When researchers reviewed more than 500 infant deaths, it was found that 17 of these deaths occurred while the in was in a device such as a child safety seat. The age of the most occurring rates of death by SIDS in a child safety device was found to be under one month, having six of the 17 deaths happen in this age group. Although SIDS has been found to be a high risk regarding child safety seats, a coroner in Quebec also stated that utting infants in car seatscauses breathing problems and should be discouraged.12] His warning same after the death of a two-month-old boy who was left to nap in a child safety seat positioned inside of his crib rather than the crib itself. The death was linked to positional asphyxiation. This means that the child was in a position causing him to slowly lose his supply of oxygen. The coroner said that it is common for a baby head to lump forward while in a car seat and that it diminishes oxygen. It is recommended for drivers to make frequent stops during trips to prevent an infant sitting in a slumped forward position for any length of time. These are just a small example of the many things that could possibly go wrong with any child safety seat. It is suggestible that every parent look into the product they are buying to gain knowledge of how they work and the ratings they have received. Some resources that can be used for this include The Latch Manual which demonstrates the knowledge of installing different child restraints, Newsletters such as afe Riders News, and fact sheets that can be printed offline as PDF files, etc.

Research done by economist Steven Levitt has shown that for children above the age of 2, an adult seat belt is just as effective as a properly installed child car seat in preventing death.

References

^ AAP. ar Safety Seats: A Guide For Families 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 22 Feb. 2009 .

^ AAP. ar Safety Seats: A Guide For Families 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 22 Feb. 2009 .

^ AAP. ar Safety Seats: A Guide For Families 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2009. American Academy of Pedicatrics. 22 Feb. 2009 .

^ AAP. ar Safety Seats: A Guide For Families 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 22 Feb. 2009 .

^ AAP. ar Safety Seats: A Guide For Families 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2009. American Academy of Pediatrics. 22 Feb. 2009 .

^ The Canadian Press. ar Seats A Danger To Sleeping Babies, Can Cause Asphyxiation:Que Coroner. Breitbart. 4 Feb. 2009. The Canadian Press. 25 Feb. 2009 .

^ The Canadian Press. ar Seats A Danger To Sleeping Babies, Can Cause Asphyxiation:Que Coroner. Breitbart. 4 Feb. 2009. The Canadian Press. 25 Feb. 2009…

Freeze Dried Aquarium Pet Fish Food ,



Methods

1/4 inch ropes, ribbon, or leather straps are used to flatten the breasts. Chains can also be used for hanging from the tits, having the advantage of increased sensational awareness through their coldness which can be increased by prepping in a freezer. In breast binding, it is also common for bandages, plastic wraps, and duct tape to flatten breasts, nipples, and areolas. Along with these forms of painful pleasure or pleasurable pain, there is breast spanking. A rare occurrence, but enjoyed by some where the breasts are spanked, much like one’s posterior.

Techniques

A model with bound breasts, in a karada body harness.

Ropes are tied around the base of each breast, causing the breasts to bulge outwards. Usually, the same rope is used for both breasts so that the rope harness is automatically held together at the front. The rope may then also be fixed behind the back, to make a sort of bra. For this to work, the tied person needs large breasts; it is rarely possible to do it to a male.

Another technique is to put a rope around the torso just above the breasts, and another one just below them, then push the ropes together to squeeze the breasts from the top and bottom, as shown at right. This can be done instead of, or as well as, the other method. A rope can also be passed over the shoulders and between the breasts, drawing the rope above and below the breasts together, then pass back over the shoulders to the knots at the back. The primary rope can be used to place cinches between the arms and the body.

This technique is often combined with elbow bondage, to make the breasts stick out even more, as shown in the picture above. When using elbow bondage in an advanced method, the elbow ropes as they pass under the shoulders and behind the neck can draw the ropes above and below the breasts together at the sides of the breasts, thus resulting in rope effectively surrounding the breasts. Alternatively, the ropes across the back can be linked to a box tie or a reverse prayer position.

Shinju

Breasts bound in Shinju.

Shinju (from the Japanese meaning pearl) is a word used euphemistically in Japanese to refer to the binding of female breasts. It has been popularly claimed that “shinju” is an authentic Japanese term for a “bikini harness”. However, no such tie called a “shinju” is found in historic or present Kinbaku. The word was erroneously applied to Japanese Rope Bondage in Europe in the mid-1990s by commercial websites.[citation needed]

The basic or foundational Kinbaku form of binding the arms and breasts is known as the “Ushiro Takatekote”; which is to bind the arms behind (ushiro) the back in a box arm position (takate kote). This basic box arm tie originally found in the samurai martial art of Hojjutsu () or Nawajutsu, () evolved into its erotic usage at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, and is foundational to most other Kinbaku ties.* Harrington, Lee. Shibari You Can Use. pp. 51-96. ISBN 978-0-6151-4490-0.

Effect and other use , rhinestone collar .

Apart from the visual appearance of the breasts being lifted, the pressure that is applied results in a reduction in blood flow, and a further swelling and firming of the breasts. This makes them very sensitive, especially the nipples and surrounding areas, and it can be quite pleasurable to the bound person when they are stimulated. Conversely, if nipple clamps are used, the nipples will be particularly sensitive to this and the degree of pain significantly greater. Rubber bands around the breasts have also been used with breast bondage to increase this effect still further, but can lead to a dangerous restriction in blood flow (see safety) , round bird cages .

Breast bondage can play an integral part in suspension bondage. If the subject is being suspended, particularly in a horizontal position such as a suspended hogtie, breast bondage is used as the main supporting area under the chest. If there are ropes above and below the breasts at the upper chest, the weight of the upper body is taken by these ropes. With so much pressure in this area, the rope must be precisely placed or once again blood flow could be reduced (see safety). The Japanese use a sophisticated form of breast bondage called “Ushiro Takatekote.” Similar to breast bondage combined with a box tie, it is often used in suspension bondage.

Safety

Breast bondage is secured to a subject.

As with any situation where tight ropes are used, it is possible that blood flow will be restricted too much, which can cause pain and lasting damage. Photos of breast bondage sometimes show that the breasts have turned purple. Always take care whenever the breasts or nipples begin to change color or become cool to the touch. It is better to have several short sessions rather than one long one. If you decide to flagellate bound breasts, ensure that you use a low-impact device. Binding the breast removes its natural ability to shift on impact and compacts the tissues so that any hard blow can increase the potential for damage. Rupturing, internal tearing and stretch marks are all hazards of breast suspension if not done properly. If you engage in suspension bondage, make certain that the body is properly suspended through additional means and not by the breasts only. A sharp pair of scissors with blunt points for safety should be kept at hand to quickly undo the bondage in the event of an emergency.

References

The Visual Dictionary of Sex, Dr. Eric J Trimmer (editor), ISBN 0-89479-011-0; A & W Publishers, 1977

External links

Breast Punishment Primer

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BDSM

Bondage and discipline

B&D or B/D

Abrasion Ageplay Ass worship Breast bondage Collar Edgeplay Hogtie bondage Spreadeagle position Crotch rope Human animal roleplay Interrogation scene Japanese bondage Metal bondage Mummification Predicament bondage Rope bondage Self-bondage Sensation play Suspension bondage Tie and tease

Dominance and submission

D&S or D/s

Adult spanking Body worship Boot worship Erotic humiliation Erotic sexual denial Facesitting Fear play Female dominance Female submission Feminization Male dominance Male submission Master/slave Medical scene Rape fantasy Servitude Sexual slavery Submissive Rubberdoll

Sadomasochism

S&M or S/M

Bloodplay Breathplay Caning Cock and ball torture Erotic electrostimulation Erotic spanking Fire play Fire cupping Gun play Ice play Impact play Knife play Play piercing Urethral sounding Violet wand Wax play Temperature play Tit torture

Aftercare BDSM in culture and media Safeword Scene - Role-play Top - Switch - Bottom SSC Consent YKINOK Leather Pride flag BDSM Emblem International Fetish Day Fetish

Categories: BDSM | Bondage | BreastHidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing style editing from March 2009 | All articles needing style editing | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009

,



Legal status

Either of these two signs are used in the United States to prohibit hitchhiking.

Hitchhiking (called liften) is legal in the Netherlands. This sign indicates a good place to get a lift, close to Amstel railway station in Amsterdam

Hitchhiking is a historically common practice worldwide, and hence there are very few places in the world where laws exist to restrict it. However, a minority of countries have laws that restrict hitchhiking at certain locations. In the United States, for example, some local governments have laws to outlaw hitchhiking, with safety being the primary concern. In 1946 New Jersey arrested and imprisoned a hitchhiker leading to intervention by ACLU. In Canada, several highways have restrictions on hitchhiking, particularly in British Columbia and the 400-series highways in Ontario. In all countries in Europe it is legal to hitchhike, and in some places even encouraged, however it is illegal to hitchhike where pedestrians are banned, such as Motorways (United Kingdom) or the Autobahn (Germany)

By contrast, there are places where drivers are obliged to pick up hitchhikers. These places are especially found in Cuba where government vehicles and lorry drivers, with an unoccupied seat, must pick up hitchhikers.[citation needed , fabric flocked .

Signaling metho , beach towel bag .

A typical hitchhiker's gesture.

The hitchhiker's method of signaling to drivers differs around the world. In the U.S. and UK, one would point one's thumb up, while in some places in South America one displays to an oncoming car the back of her hand with the index finger pointing up.[citation needed] In Poland, the hand is held flat, and waved.[citation needed] In India, the hand is waved with the palm facing downwards (or the U.S./UK way).[citation needed] In Israel the hitchhiking signal is similar, often pointing downwards.[citation needed]

A hitchhiker may also hold a sign displaying their destination and/or the languages spoken. A more recent method is to go to websites and arrange lifts beforehand, without soliciting directly from the road. This way of transport is a modern way of ridesharing/carpooling.

Often nothing more than communication and entertainment of the driver is given or performed in exchange for the lift, but in some places, such as parts of central Asia, hitchhikers in cargo trucks, especially foreigners, are expected to pay for the ride, usually some portion of the usual bus fare for the trip.[citation needed]

Reasons

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia’s quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (March 2009)

There are many reasons for hitchhiking, including a lack of personal transportation, a lack of money for public transit, or because public transit is unavailable or too infrequent. Alternatively, the hitchhiker may be unable to drive for whatever reason. These may generally be regarded as reasons of immediacy, as opposed to hitchhikers who pursue the activity with something more akin to a major passion for it, such as the love of adventure, or for reasons having to do with self-discovery or self-realization.

Irv Thomas, a lifelong American hitchhiker, has illuminated the aspect of an unmediated exposure to reality in his memoir, Derelict Days… Sixty Years on the Roadside Path to Enlightenment, noting that in today’s security-focused world, hitchhiking may be the only remnant of a world in which developments were largely left to chance. In venturing such journeys, the discovery and realization that ‘good things consistently happen’ can be a life-changing outcome.

Though for many, hitchhiking is simply recreation. The ability to travel for free to a far-off location, whilst meeting interesting people along the way, is sufficient reason for many to hitchhike.

A definition of hitchhiking put forward by Max Neumegen, ex-world overland traveler, ‘mentor’ of “hitchhiking with a bike”, and member of the Trans Africa Walk for Peace Expedition 1979; “the hitchhiker is there so you can do your good deed for the day”.

Sport and leisure

Hitchhiking in low-populated areas

For many, hitchhiking is a great adventure and challenge. Each year hundreds of students from the U.K. take part in a sponsored hitch to Morocco or Prague in aid of Link Community Development; in 2007, 782 people hitched the 1,600 miles to Morocco and raised almost 340,000 to improve the quality of education in Africa. Other UK students partake in “Jailbreak” where a group of students hold a competition, usually in the summer holidays/vacation, to see who can get farthest from their university without spending any money on travel (whether money can be spent on food/shelter is up to the participants to decide).

There were fifty hitchhikers supported by several MEPs called Eurizons that did the Tour for Global Responsibility. They traveled over 2500 km. In Eastern Europe, especially Lithuania and Russia hitchhiking is an adventure sport. There are clubs, hitchhiking schools, and competitions. From 1992 to 1993, Russian hitchhiker Alexey Vorov made a first trip around the world, hitchhiking by cars, planes and boats. In January 2007 197 students hitchhiked from Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland to Paris, France in Race to Paris, an event co-ordinated by the University of St Andrews Charities Campaign. The winners made the journey in just 19 hours and 16 minutes. The event returned as Race to Amsterdam in January 2008, in which 214 racers participated, and Race to Berlin in January 2009 - the largest charity hitchhike in the University’s history, which involved nearly 270 racers, and raised over 20,000 for the Campaign’s nominated Charities. In October 2007, Pete Stephens and Tim Keevil (two students from Bristol) completed a hitch hike to Singapore from London, taking seven weeks and crossing over 6600 miles. Raising over 3000 for Students Partnership Worldwide and Epilepsy Action.

The Erasmus Student Network (ESN) international student group from the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam went on two hitch-hiking trips during the 2007-2008 school year, one being to Paris and the other to Berlin. About 25 groups of usually two students each successfully made both trips. Only one group managed not to arrive in Berlin, being stranded in Amersfoort.

A hitchhiker is also a type of letterbox, which is part of an outdoor hobby known as letterboxing. In this hobby, the hitchhiker (a stamp and a logbook) are discovered in a letterbox by a letterboxer, and are removed, to be placed in another letterbox elsewhere.

Hitchhiking in popular culture

The characters portrayed by Claudette Colbert and Clark Gable attempt to hitchhike in It Happened One Night.

Literature

The writer Jack Kerouac immortalized hitchhiking in his book On the Road. The road has a fascination to Americans; countless writers have written of the road and/or hitchhiking, such as John Steinbeck, whose book The Grapes of Wrath opens with a hitched ride. Kurt Vonnegut’s perpetual protagonist, Kilgore Trout hitchhikes halfway across the country in Breakfast of Champions. Roald Dahl wrote a short story called The Hitchhiker, in which he uses the idea that you can hear fascinating stories when giving people a lift to introduce one of his trade-mark eccentric characters. Another lesser known author, a lifetime hitchhiker named Irv Thomas, incorporates hitchhiking into his writing perspective and lifestyle in Innocence Abroad: Adventuring Through Europe at 64 on $100 Per Week, as well as recounting his hitchhiking travels in a memoir, Derelict Days…Sixty Years on the Roadside Path to Enlightenment. (In June, 2009, Thomas extended that lifetime record to 66 years, with a long-distance road trip at age 82). Douglas Adams postulated on interstellar hitchhiking in his cult classic The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, while fellow science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein described interdimensional hitchhiking in his book Job: A Comedy of Justice. The protagonist of Tom Robbins’ Even Cowgirls Get the Blues, Sissy Hankshaw, becomes legendary as a hitchhiker in part because of her unusually large thumbs. British comedian Tony Hawks writes about hitchhiking around Ireland with a refrigerator as the result of a drunken bet in Round Ireland With a Fridge. An in-depth analysis on the practice of hitchhiking in Poland was published, aptly called Autostop Polski (“Polish hitchhiking”). In 2005, No Such Thing As A Free Ride?, a comprehensive anthology of hitchhiking stories and viewpoints was published by Cassell Illustrated. The book was serialized in The Times and named The Observer’s Travel Book of the Week. Edited by Tom Sykes and Simon Sykes, it featured contributions from Mike Leigh, Sir Alan Parker, Sir Max Hastings, Tony Hawks and Eric Burdon, amongst others. In 2008, No Such Thing As A Free Ride? North American Edition was published by Goose Lane of Canada and featured JP Donleavy, Margaret Avison, Doug Stanhope, Jeff Lewis and Will Durst, amongst others.

Music

(1941) - “Barstow: Eight Hitchhiker Inscriptions from a Highway Railing at Barstow, CA” Harry Partch

(1962) - “Hitch Hike” Marvin Gaye

(1968) - “America” Simon and Garfunkle

(1969) - “Hitchin’ a Ride” Vanity Fare

(1970) - “Ridin’ Thumb” Seals and Crofts

(1971) - “Riders on the Storm” The Doors

(1972) - “Sweet Hitch Hiker” Creedence Clearwater Revival

(1976) - “Hitch a Ride” Boston

(1977) - “Rockaway Beach” Ramones

(1984) - “The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking” Roger Waters

(1997) - “Hitchin’ a Ride” Green Day

(2001) - “Wagon Wheel” Old Crow Medicine Show

(2002) - “Blue Sunday” Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers

(2003) - “Lost Dogs”…

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Metals attacked

Certain austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys crack in the presence of chlorides, mild steel cracks in the presence of alkali (boiler cracking) and nitrates, copper alloys crack in ammoniacal solutions (season cracking). This limits the usefulness of austenitic stainless steel for containing water with higher than few ppm content of chlorides at temperatures above 50 C. Worse still, high-tensile structural steels crack in an unexpectedly brittle manner in a whole variety of aqueous environments, especially containing chlorides. With the possible exception of the latter, which is a special example of hydrogen cracking, all the others display the phenomenon of subcritical crack growth, i.e. small surface flaws propagate (usually smoothly) under conditions where fracture mechanics predicts that failure should not occur. That is, in the presence of a corrodent, cracks develop and propagate well below KIc. In fact, the subcritical value of the stress intensity, designated as KIscc, may be less than 1% of KIc, as the following table shows:

Alloy

KIc

MN/m3/ , electric motor wire .

SCC environmen , tube stainless steel .

KIscc

MN/m3/2

13Cr steel

60

3% NaCl

12

18Cr-8Ni

200

42% MgCl2

10

Cu-30Zn

200

NH4OH, pH7

1

Al-3Mg-7Zn

25

Aqueous halides

5

Ti-6Al-1V

60

0.6M KCl

20

Polymers attacked

Ozone cracking in Natural rubber tubing

Polymers can also be attacked by certain reagents, and if under load, then cracks will grow just as in metals and alloys. Perhaps the oldest known example is the ozone cracking of rubbers, where traces of ozone in the atmosphere attack double bonds in the chains of the materials. Elastomers with double bonds in their chains include natural rubber, nitrile rubber and styrene-butadiene rubber. They are all highly susceptible to ozone attack, and can cause problems like car fires (from rubber fuel lines) and tyre blow-outs. Nowadays, anti-ozonants are widely added to these polymers, so the incidence of cracking has dropped. However, not all safety-critical rubber products are protected, and since only ppb of ozone will start attack, failures are still occurring.

chlorine attack of acetal resin plumbing joint

Another highly reactive gas is chlorine, which will attack susceptible polymers such as acetal resin and polybutylene pipework. There have been many examples of such pipes and acetal fittings failing in properties in the USA as a result of chlorine-induced cracking. Essentially the gas attacks sensitive parts of the chain molecules (especially secondary, tertiary or allylic carbon atoms), oxidising the chains and ultimately causing chain cleavage. The root cause is traces of chlorine in the water supply, added for its anti-bacterial action, attack occurring even at parts per million traces of the dissolved gas.

Most step-growth polymers can suffer hydrolysis in the presence of water, often a reaction catalysed by acid or alkali. Nylon for example, will degrade and crack rapidly if exposed to strong acids. Polycarbonate is susceptible to alkali hydrolysis, the reaction simply depolymerising the material. Polyesters are prone to degrade when treated with strong acids, and in all these cases, care must be taken to dry the raw materials for processing at high temperatures to prevent the problem occurring.

Many polymers are also attacked by UV radiation at vulnerable points in their chain structures. Thus polypropylene suffers severe cracking in sunlight unless anti-oxidants are added. The point of attack occurs at the tertiary carbon atom present in every repeat unit, causing oxidation and finally chain breakage.

Crack growth

The subcritical nature of propagation may be attributed to the chemical energy released as the crack propagates. That is,

elastic energy released + chemical energy = surface energy + deformation energy

The crack initiates at KIscc and thereafter propagates at a rate governed by the slowest process, which most of the time is the rate at which corrosive ions can diffuse to the crack tip. As the crack advances so K rises (because crack length appears in the calculation of stress intensity). Finally it reaches KIc , whereupon fast fracture ensues and the component fails. One of the practical difficulties with SCC is its unexpected nature. Stainless steels, for example, are employed because under most conditions they are “passive”, i.e. effectively inert. Very often one finds a single crack has propagated while the rest of the metal surface stays apparently unaffected. The crack propagates perpendicular to the applied stress.

Examples

The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side

SCC caused the catastrophic collapse of the Silver Bridge in December 1967, when an eyebar suspension bridge across the Ohio river at Point Pleasant, West Virginia, suddenly failed. The main chain joint failed and the whole structure fell into the river, killing 46 people in vehicles on the bridge at the time. Rust in the eyebar joint had caused a stress corrosion crack, which went critical as a result of high bridge loading and low temperature. The failure was exacerbated by a high level of residual stress in the eyebar. The disaster led to a nationwide reappraisal of the state of the nation’s bridges.

A nylon 6,6 connector in a diesel fuel line fractured when a small drop of sulfuric acid leaked from the lead-acid battery overhead. It formed a small crack which grew until fuel started leaking. As the critical crack grew, leakage increased until the line parted and fuel fell unrestricted into the road, and caused several crashes to other motorists.

An acetal resin junction in a water supply system suddenly fractured over a weekend, causing substantial damage to computers stored below in the building. The junction failed at injection moulding defects by chlorine attack of the polymer. The water supply contained only 5 ppm of chlorine, but was sufficient to trigger stress corrosion cracking.

Suspended ceilings in indoor swimming pools are safety-relevant components. As was demonstrated by the collapses of the ceiling of the Uster (Switzerland) indoor swimming pool (1985) and again at Steenwijk (Netherlands, 2001), attention must be paid to selecting suitable materials and inspecting the state of such components. The reason for the failures was SCC of metal fastening components made of stainless steel.

See also

Forensic chemistry

Forensic engineering

Forensic materials engineering

Forensic polymer engineering

Fracture mechanics

Environmental stress fracture

Ozone cracking

Polymer degradation

Season cracking

References

^ ASM International, Metals Handbook (Desk Edition) Chapter 32 (Failure Analysis), American Society for Metals, (1997) pp 32-24 to 32-26

^ Lewis, Peter Rhys, Reynolds, K, and Gagg, C, Forensic Materials Engineering: Case studies, CRC Press (2004).

^ Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth, Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking, Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946-962.

^ M. Faller and P. Richner: Material selection of safety-relevant components in indoor swimming pools, Materials and Corrosion 54 (2003) S. 331 - 338.(only online in German (3.6 MB)) (ask for a copy of the English version)

External links

Stress corrosion cracking of aluminum alloys

Theory of Stress corrosion cracking

Forensic course dicusses stress corrosion cracking

Categories: Corrosion | Fracture mechanicsHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2007 | All articles lacking sources

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Indicators of abuse and neglect

Insects are valuable as forensic indicators in cases of abuse and neglect. Some insects, such as the Green Bottle Fly, (Lucilia sericata (Meigen)), are drawn to odors, such as ammonia, resulting from urine or fecal contamination. Adult green bottle flies tend to be attracted to an incontinent individual who lacks the voluntary control of excretory functions. Such examples include a baby who has not had its diapers changed often or an incontinent elderly person who has not been helped in maintaining routine bodily hygiene. Flies lay their eggs in and around clothing and skin which, if left undiscovered, will hatch into maggots (larvae) which begin feeding upon flesh, open wounds, ulcers, and any natural bodily entry point. Over time, the flesh will be eaten away, and the region may be further infected by bacteria or invaded by other insects. This is known as myiasis.

Techniques for collection of evidence

There are two areas that should be examined for insect evidence: the victim itself and then the eggs, instar larvae (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) or maggots which may be found in and around the wound. Maggots should be very carefully removed, without damaging them. Breaking a maggot within the victim releases large amounts of foreign protein, which can result in shock, anaphylaxis and even death. Maggots, therefore, should only be removed manually and not killed with a chemical treatment, as the death of maggots in the wound can also cause anaphylaxis. If only a few maggots are present, they can be removed by hand. Special techniques in removal include flushing the area with water to remove the maggots or using a delicate brush to retrieve young instars. For the health of the victim, all maggots should be removed, if possible. Although the maggots are often those that feed only on dead tissue and are probably not harming the human or animal, many species will feed on living tissue and cause damage. Insect species cannot be determined until it has been examined under a microscope and properly identified for further investigation.

Types of abuse and neglec , aluminum window awnings .

The three main categories of abuse/neglect seen in forensic entomology are as follows , indian oil paintings .

Child abuse/neglect

Elderly or nursing home abuse/neglect

Animal abuse/neglect

Child abuse or neglect

The United States Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), as amended by The Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum: any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm. A child is defined as a person under the age of eighteen. Within the parameters of CAPTA, each state is responsible for individually defining child abuse, neglect, and dependence and outline the care expected of parents and caregivers. In abuse cases, the most abused children are male aged from several months to 10 to 11 years old. The typical abusers are parents, live-in friends, guardians, or baby sitters, and only rarely by a sibling or other child.

The recognition of abuse is not always beyond doubt. Some usual symptoms of child abuse/neglect include malnutrition, bruises or abrasions, healing fractures, and repetitive or cumulative injuries upon examination of skin, soft tissues, and bones. In proven child and abuse cases, as determined by the aforementioned constraints, forensic entomology can be utilized in estimating the time since the abuse last occurred, and in fatal cases, the post-mortem interval (PMI). Furthermore, blowfly larvae and pupae can produce evidence that may determine the length of neglect.

Case Study: The child of an incarcerated father and heroin-addicted, prostitute mother, was found on July 10, 2000 in the home of a 20 year old woman in Germany. Social workers had visited the house at the urging of neighbors, but there was never evidence found that neglect was occurring. An autopsy showed no signs of previous fractures, illness or drugs, but the child was malnourished. The Muscina stabulans (False Stable Fly) and Fannia canicularis (Little House fly) were recovered from the genital area of the corpse. These particular flies are attracted to urine and/or feces much more than corpses. With the aid of this evidence and the third fly species recovered from the body, Calliphora vomitoria (Bluebottle Fly), the forensic entomologists could not only estimate the time of death, but prove that the child would have lived if proper legal action had been pursued against the negligent caregiver. The mother received a five year prison sentence and two social workers were charged for duty of care violation.

Case Study: A two year old male child showing signs of malnourishment and suffering severe enteric pain and bleeding was admitted to hospital in Ireland. Investigative surgical procedures revealed tissue lacerations. Spicules from the tissue samples and a partial larva were identified as the cause. Larvae of Dermestes lardarius were also found in large numbers in boxes of biscuits in the kitchen at the child’s home. Neglect was demonstrated.

Case Study: A seven year old child with high fever and covered with several hundred Dermanyssus gallinae (Red Mite) and their bites was abandoned at a hospital in Ireland. Investigators traced the child to a caravan occupied by “travellers” parked near a hen house where the birds were heavily infested with the mite. Abandonment and neglect (of both child and bird) were proven. Eradicating the mites from the hospital proved more difficult.

Elder abuse or neglect

Elderly abuse is the act of using physical force against an elderly person that causes them physical harm and elderly neglect is the act of not providing for their basic needs. In typical elderly abuse cases, victims are generally older widowed women living on fixed incomes. The typical abuser is usually a family member such as a spouse or child, but non-relatives such as nursing home attendants can play a part. Most instances of abuse and neglect go unreported because the elderly person is too afraid to speak up.

The usual symptoms of elderly abuse are anything that would be visible such as broken bones, bed sores, cuts, bruises, etc. The symptoms of neglect are harder to put a finger on because they are much less noticeable. Signs are lack of food and water, not bathing regularly, wearing the same clothes repetitively, weight loss, withdrawal from social contact, depression, and anxiety. Forensic entomologist can use insects to determine the post-mortem interval and whether or not the person was neglected. There are several cases where neglect was found to be a major factor in the person death.

Case Study 1: An elderly woman was found dead in October 2002 in her apartment in Cologne, Germany. The bath room was very dirty with the bath tub full of water and clothing. Larvae were found on the body but more importantly dead adults of Muscina stabulans (False Stable Fly) were found on the floor and on a window sill. No blowflies could be found but larval tracks could be seen around the body. The post mortem interval was estimated to be about three weeks. This was strong evidence for neglect because the care giver was supposed to check on the woman every week.

Case Study 2: An elderly woman was found dead in September 2002 in her apartment in Germany. Her foot, which she had wrapped in a plastic bag, was infected with Lucilia sericata (Green Bottle Fly) larvae. The woman did not clean her toilet and had placed clothing in it, which encouraged flies. The post mortem interval was estimated to be about two days. The maggots were estimated to be about 4 days old. It was found that the maggots had been feeding on her foot for a week while she was still alive.

Case Study 3: An elderly woman was found dead in March 2002 in her apartment in Germany. Several insects were found on the body: larval Fannia canicularis (Little House Fly), larval Muscina stabulans (False Stable Fly), and adult Dermestes lardarius (Larder Beetle). Fannia are drawn to feces and urine, and their presence is strong evidence of neglect. The woman probably had not changed clothes or bathed in some time. She had developed pressure spots where her head had been resting on her chest for long periods of time. If she had been taken care of, the caregiver would have noticed these wounds.

Animal abuse or neglect

According to the Humane Society, intentional animal cruelty, or animal abuse, is knowingly depriving an animal of food, water, shelter, socialization, or veterinary care or maliciously torturing, maiming, mutilating, or killing an animal.

Myiasis is the leading entomological evidence used to prove abuse, and neglect in animals. Leading causes of myiasis in animals occur when there is an injury or the presence of excretory material, making the living animal alluring to insects. The following characteristics have to be present for myiasis to happen in a pet animal. There has to be abuse or neglect that causes an injury with blood, decaying tissue, feces or urine that attracts flies and the animals must be fairly helpless or incapable of cleaning itself. In long-coated animals, matts and burrs can cause irritation which leads to hot spots, scratching, open lacerations, and infestation. Animals with long mats and coats are especially prone to the building of excrement around the genital area. This circumstance worsens when the animal is elderly or hindered and can no longer clean itself. Risk factors are further intensified if the animals…

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Youth, Education, and Training

Costa is the second youngest of five children. He grew up in Guarani, Brazil, where his mother, Maria-Francisca, owned a children’s wear factory. She began her business producing dresses commissioned by a traveling salesman. Costa’s father, Jacy Neves da Costa, ran a small ranch. In his hometown of 4,000 people, Costa put on fashion shows for charities. His size is compact and he has brown eyes. Being civic minded by nature, his mother was like the mayor of the town. She presided over her family. Costa remembers there being fifteen people at his family’s lunch table.

When his mother died in 1981 he left with a friend for New York City. He was twenty and spoke no English at the time. He enrolled in a language class at Hunter College and took courses at the Fashion Institute of Technology at night. He obtained employment with Herbert Rounick, whose Seventh Avenue (Manhattan) company made dresses for Oscar de la Renta and Bill Blass. Costa went to work for de la Renta after Rounick’s death, designing for the firm’s Japanese licenses. Costa credits de la Renta with teaching him the most about both designing clothes and life. He remained with the company for five years.

Senior Designer at Calvin Klein

Klein’s partner, Barry Schwartz, brought Costa’s name to Klein’s attention in 2001. Costa became the principal designer for Calvin Klein at the age of 42, in September 2003. Earlier in the year Klein sold his company to Phillips-Van Heusen for approximately $730 million. Costa joined the Klein design group in 2001 after working for Gucci, where he was an assistant to Tom Ford. Their first collaboration is known as the Cher Collection. Costa was mentioned as a possible replacement when Ford retired from designing for Gucci and Yves Saint Laurent, in late 2003.

Fashion Collections 2004 - 2007

He emphasized trouser suits for women as opposed to ruffles in the spring 2004 collections. His creations stress the idea of freedom in dress with female underpinnings. With evening dresses Costa’s designs reveal both flesh and underpants, often accentuated by the cool hues of the sea. He is not uptight concerning nudity and lingerie. Costa prefers sensuality in sexual imagery as opposed to the more explicit ads used to market Calvin Klein clothes formerly.

For 2004 his models wore stretch bras and underpants in foundation colors. Costa utilized a clingy, transparent material for daytime skirts. He combined them with cashmere tops, which sometimes gave the look an artificial quality. Costa’s loose cotton shorts, modelled with cardigan sweaters, were layered over rumpled white shirts and men’s ribbed undershirts. This look reflected the late 1970s styles when designers like Calvin Klein and Perry Ellis came to prominence.

Costa maintains a ledger-size mood book in his studio. In early 2004 photographs of horses by Max Eastman appeared frequently in these volumes. Costa is inspired by the coats of horses, especially in his palettes of sepia and cream. The textures of his collection owe much to pony skin, alpaca, and leather. He enjoys photographs of Lauren Hutton and Charlotte Rampling from the 1970s, particularly ones which have them posed in close proximity with ponies and stallions. Costa said, These women are thoroughbreds.

In the fall of 2004 Costa introduced washed silk dresses and black wool felt coats. The clothing was given weight by the librarian brogue heel, variations of which first appeared at Calvin Klein. The style was exceedingly popular during both the Paris, France and Milan, Italy shows.

In his collection for Spring 2005 Costa showed a sea-green silk dress wrapped like a towel. An alternative of the dress, of like color and style, was unveiled on the runway in September 2004. The silk dress was coveted by many buyers and was shipped to stores in the late fall and early winter , bar mops .

The original inspiration for this collection were primitive wood sculptures by Brancusi. After spending a week in Wyoming Costa aspired to capture the surreal hues of green, blue, and orange, which he had observed juxtaposed with the western landscape at Yellowstone National Park. Costa purchased silk and viscose jersey (clothing) in the garment center of New York City. He had these dyed to match the colors he had photographed in Wyoming. Next he pinned the fabrics on a model, blending and shaping the patterns until he was pleased with their natural effect. The evening dresses he designed were uncomplicated. They were based on a trapeze, combining viscose jersey with silk to make them appear lively , decoration fabric .

Vogue and Harper’s Bazaar chose a lime green dress worn by Elle Macpherson as a highlight of 2005. Both publications named her to their best dressed lists after she wore the Costa design, which she combined with casual flats. Macpherson asked Costa to pick the color and he selected lime green. It was especially attractive on her because of her skin color.

Costa’s new collection for Calvin Klein was criticized by critic, Cathy Horyn, for conveying largely a surface beauty. She wrote about his February 2006 showing in the New York Times. It featured dresses with many layers of black chiffon and tulle. Horn pointed out that Calvin Klein is a sportswear house, not a dress house, and Costa is gifted with a talent for designing sportswear. His collection was reminiscent of the 1930s, with shapes which were long and relaxed. The models wore chiffon bras with tiny handkerchief points of chiffon on their dresses, which extended nakedly across their backs. Horn wondered if many women would not find the fashions untenable and fussy, if not stifling.”

In May 2006 Costa served as chairman of a benefit for the Whitney Museum of American Art. He conceived a project for the museum which created art out of fashion. He approached artists Ghada Amer, Vik Muniz, and Billy Sullivan about making art which would be clearly identified with fashion. After showing at the Whitney Art Party, the work was moved and displayed in the windows of the Calvin Klein boutique on Madison Avenue (Manhattan).

Costa designed a line of long slim dresses and pantsuits which were introduced in September 2007. They were constructed of white stretch cotton. His collection featured long stretch silk T-shirts in egg-wash shades of green or blue. The colors accentuated the refreshing impression of the lines, especially Costa’s spare evening halters worn with high-waist silk trousers and a strapless dress of pale jade organza. Reviewer Horyn had only one criticism of a collection she believes will gain more meaning with time. This was Costa’s failure to notice that the hemlines of his dresses should have been longer.

Private Life

As of May 2004 Costa’s companion was horse trainer John DeStefano Jr. The two had been together fourteen years. Costa donned a coat and tie to join DeStefano for opening day at Belmont Park, where the latter had horses running in the eighth and ninth races.With the Clotheshorses Of the Backstretch, New York Times, May 11, 2004, pg. B.11. Costa and DeStefano met at George Smith, the furniture store where Costa worked on Saturdays to supplement the salary he earned on Seventh Avenue.

References

^ a b c d What Comes Between Costa And His Calvins?, New York Times Magazine, Spring 2006, pgs. 210-215.

^ a b c Gucci’s Choice For Designer Needs Sketches, and Charisma, New York Times, November 6, 2003, pg. C1.

^ a b Calvin Klein’s Successor Loosens The Corset Laces, New York Times, September 18, 2003, pg. B7.

^ Bless This Mess, New York Times, February 8, 2004, pg. 9.1.

^ Accessorizing With Punch, New York Times, March 16, 2004, pg. B.8.

^ Shh! Just Pretend You’ve Never Seen Those Styles, New York Times, September 7, 2004, pg. A1.

^ “All the Pretty Clothes. And Then, Calvin Klein, New York Times, September 16, 2004, pg. B.11.

^ The Good, The Bad And the Huh?, New York Times, January 5, 2006, pg. G.1.

^ Evolution on the Runway; Room to Grow, New York Times, February 11, 2006, pg. B.20.

^ Using a White Shirt As Their Canvas, New York Times, May 11, 2006, pg. G.6.

^ Designers in a Time of Many Dresses, Some Terrific, New York Times, September 13, 2007, pg. B.8.

Categories: 1961 births | Fashion designers | People from Minas Gerais | Living people

radiator cooling fan ,



Types of hairstyling tools

Hair styling equipment which helps in creating hairstyles includes:

Hair irons

Early hair tongs

A hair iron is a tool used to change the structure of the hair with the help of heat. There are three general kinds: curling tongs, used to make the hair curly, straighteners, used to straighten the hair, and crimpers, used to create small crimps in the hair , professional hair irons .

Blowdryer , chi ceramic irons .

Modern-day blowdryer

A blowdryer or hairdryer is an electromechanical device designed to blow cool or hot air over wet or damp hair, in order to accelerate the evaporation of water particles and dry the hair. Blowdryers allow to better control the shape and style of hair, by accelerating and controlling the formation of temporary hydrogen bonds inside each strand. These hydrogen bonds are very powerful (allowing for stronger hair shaping than even the sulfur bonds formed by permanent waving products), but are temporary and extremely vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a single washing of the hair.

Hairbrushs

A flat hairbrush is used to detangle unkempt hair.

A round hairbrush is used to style hair for neat and tidy hair, medium length, with a blowdryer.

A brush is typically used on longer hair, while a comb is normally used on shorter hair, but can be still used for short hair. A flat brush is normally used for detangling neat and tidy hair, after a sleep; a round brush for styling and curling hair, especially by a professional stylist, and with a blowdryer. A paddle brush is used to straighten hair, but not all work, they are usually used on untidy unkept hair. A hairbrush is also useful in removing loose hairs, and in increasing circulation to the scalp.

The brushing of a domestic animal’s fur is often perceived as a mark of affection and/or a bonding experience, which can have a soothing effect, e.g. making a cat purr. Special brushes are made for cats and dogs. For an equine’s tougher hair, a curry-comb is used.

Scissors

Different types of scissors - sewing (left), paper (middle), kitchen (right)

Scissors are hand operated cutting instruments, and for people without hands, there is also the option of using a specially designed foot operated style. They consist of a pair of metal blades connected in such a way that the blades meet and cut. Scissors are used for cutting various thin materials, such as paper, cardboard, metal foil, thin plastic, cloth, rope and wire. Scissors can also be used to cut hair and food.

Scissors and shears exist in a wide variety of forms depending on their intended uses. Children’s scissors, used only on paper, have dull blades to ensure safety. Scissors used to cut hair or fabric must be much sharper. The largest shears used to cut metal or to trim shrubs must have very strong sharp blades.

Specialized scissors include sewing scissors, which often have one sharp point and one blunt point for intricate cutting of fabric, and nail scissors, which have curved blades for cutting fingernails and toenails.

Special kinds of shears include pinking shears, which have notched blades that cut cloth to give it a wavy edge, and thinning shears, which have teeth that thin hair rather than trim it.

Combs

A comb

A comb is a device made of solid material, generally flat, always toothed, and is used in hair care for straightening and cleaning hair or other fibers. Combs are among the oldest tools found by archaeologists, having been discovered in very refined forms from settlements dating back to 5000 years ago in Persia.

Hair clippers

Electric hair clippers have gradually displaced manual hair clippers. Today, electric hair clippers are used by the vast majority of barbers in industrialized countries.

All of these companies offer electric hair clippers in differing grades from bargain consumer units to high-end professional units. Most consumer grade clippers are intended for personal use by individual consumers and are often sold in kits which include several accessories such as clipper guides (for adjusting the length of the cut). Professional units are intended for hair care professionals and often are sold without any accessories (which must be ordered separately). The quality difference between the consumer grade and professional grade electric clippers has narrowed significantly over the years. Today the primary difference between the two grades is usually added or enhanced insulating for internal electrical components to prevent the unit from heating up during periods of prolonged usage. Some companies, such as Conair and Andis, replace some plastic parts in consumer grade units with metal parts on their professional grade units to extend the durability and useful lifespan of the product. Some companies such as Wahl Clipper produce specialty clippers such as the Trim n Vac which are designed for ease of use at home.

Hair rollers

Hair rollers

A Hair roller is a small roller with velcros used in hair care for styling and curling hair, and with a blowdryer.

Ribbon

A ribbon or riband is a thin band of flexible material, typically cloth but also plastic or sometimes metal, used primarily for binding and tying. Cloth ribbons, which most commonly includes silk, are often used in connection with dress, but also applied for innumerable useful, ornamental and symbolic purposes; cultures around the world use this device in their hair, around the body, or even as ornamentation on animals, buildings, and other areas. Ribbon is also sometimes used as a package sealer, on par with twine. A typewriter uses a cloth or plastic ribbon to hold the ink.

Hair elastics

Five rubber bands

A rubber band (in some regions known as a binder, elastic band, lackey band, laggy band, lacka band or gumband) is a short length of rubber and latex formed in the shape of a loop. Such bands are typically used to hold multiple objects together.

Kanzashi

Gold plated brass kanzashi. Period unknown.

Kanzashi () are hair ornaments used in traditional Japanese hairstyles. Kanzashi first appeared when women abandoned the traditional taregami hairstyle where the hair was kept straight and long, and adopted coiffured nihongami hairstyles. Kanzashi came into wide use during the Edo period when artisans began to produce more finely crafted products. Some believe they may also have been used for defence in an emergency.

Nowadays, kanzashi are most often worn by brides and professional kimono wearers such as geisha, tayu and yujo or adepts in Japanese tea ceremony and ikebana. However, there is currently a revival among young Japanese women who wish to add an elegant touch to their business suit.

Kanzashi are fabricated from a wide range of materials such as lacquered wood, gold and silver plated metal, tortoiseshell and silk, and recently, plastic. In fact, early bakelite kanzashi are extremely collectible.

There are many varieties and many styles of wearing them. The way in which a geisha wears her kanzashi indicates her status immediately to an informed audience; according to the type and location of the kanzashi. Maiko (apprentice geisha) usually wear more numerous and elaborate kanzashi than older geisha and progress through several hairstyles where the kanzashi must be worn in a fixed pattern.

Headband (Alice bands)

A hard plastic headband, or Alice band

A headband is a clothing accessory worn in the hair or around the forehead, usually to hold hair away from the face or eyes. Headbands generally consist of a loop of elastic material or a horseshoe-shaped piece of flexible plastic or metal. They come in assorted shapes and sizes and are used for both practical and fashion purposes.

Horseshoe-shaped headbands are sometimes called Alice bands after the headbands that Alice is often depicted wearing in Through the Looking Glass.

Barrettes

A barrette (also called hair-slide in British English or a hair clip in Australian English) is a clasp or pin for holding hair in place.

Barrettes are worn according to size, with small ones at the front and large ones in the back. They are used to keep hair out of the eyes or secure hairstyles but can also be just ornamental.

Hairpins

A bobby pin, a type of hairpin

A hair pin or hairpin is a long device used to hold a person’s hair in place.

Hairpins made of metal, ivory, bronze, carved wood, etc. were used in ancient Assyria and Egypt for securing decorated hairstyles. Such hairpins suggest, as graves show, that many were luxury objects among the Egyptians and later the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Major success came in 1901 with the invention of the spiral hairpin by New Zealand inventor Ernest Godward. This was a predecessor of the hair clip.

The hairpin may be needlelike and encrusted with jewels and ornaments. It often may be more utiliarianesigned to be almost invisible after being inserted into the hairstyle.

The jewels and ornaments on the hair pins add as a hair jewelry piece. In many cultures, hairpins are used with jewelry for many of occasions. For instance, in American culture, women predominantly use hairpins as a jewelry accessory at weddings, balls, and other major events.

Hairpins also may be constructed from different lengths of wire that are bent in half with a u-shaped end and a few kinks along the two opposite portions. The finished pin may vary from two to six inches in final length. The length of the wires enables placement in several styles of hairdos to hold the style in place. The kinks enable retaining the pin during normal movements.

Hairstyling tool brands

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garment fabric fancy yarn fabric ,

e also: Poplin, Poland

Poplin, also called tabinet (or tabbinet), is a fabric consisting of a silk warp with a weft of worsted yarn. As the weft is in the form of a stout cord the fabric has a ridged structure, like rep, which gives depth and softness to the lustre of the silky surface. It is made with wool, cotton, silk, rayon, or any mixture of these, though originally made from silk. The ribs run across the fabric from selvage to selvage. Poplins are used for dress purposes, and for rich upholstery work. They are formed by using coarse filling yarns in a plain weave. Shirts made from this material are easy to iron and do not wrinkle easily.

In recent years, Poplin has come to be associated with 100% cotton shirts and it is commonly used for high quality garments. Medical Uniforms almost exclusively use Poly/Cotton blended Poplin fabrics. The term is also frequently used while rendering and is most commonly associated with the construction of wallets.

The term poplin originates from papeline, a fabric made at Avignon, France in the 1400s. The fabric was so named for the papal residence there.

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Fabric

Woven:

Barathea Barkcloth Batiste Bedford cord Bengaline silk Bombazine Broadcloth Buckram Bunting Burlap Calico Cambric Canvas Chambray Charmeuse Charvet Cheesecloth Chiffon Chino Cloth of gold Duck Coutil Crape Cretonne Dazzle Denim Dimity Dowlas Drill Foulard Flannel Gabardine Gauze Gingham Grenadine Grenfell Cloth Grosgrain Habutai Haircloth Harris Tweed Herringbone Himroo Hodden Irish linen Jamdani Khd Khaki Khaki drill Kente cloth Lam Lawn Linsey-woolsey Loden Madapolam Madras Moleskin Moquette Muslin Nainsook Nankeen Ninon Oilskin Organdy Organza Osnaburg Ottoman Oxford Percale Pongee Poplin Rayadillo Rep Ripstop Ripstop nylon Russell cord Saga Nishiki Samite Sateen Satin Saye Scarlet Seersucker Serge Scrim Stuff Taffeta Toile Tweed Twill Ventile Viyella Voile Whipcord

Figured woven:

Brocade Camlet Damask Songket

Pile woven , silk blend .

Baize Chenille Corduroy Crimplene Fustian Plush Polar fleece Terrycloth Velours du Kasa Velvet Velveteen Zibelin , poly rayon .

Nonwoven:

Felt

Knitted:

Coolmax Machine knitting Milliskin Jersey Velour

Netted:

Bobbinet Carbon fiber Fishnet Lace Mesh Needlerun Net Ninon Tulle

Technical:

Ban-Lon Darlexx Gore-Tex Smartwool Silnylon Spandex SympaTex

Patterns:

Argyle Herringbone Houndstooth Paisley Plaid Tartan

Textile fibers:

Acrylic Alpaca Angora Cashmere Chamois Coir Cotton Hemp Jute Kevlar Linen Mohair Nylon Microfiber Olefin Pashmina Polyester Pia Ramie Rayon Sea silk Silk Sisal Spandex Spider silk Wool

Finishing and printing:

Batik Bglanfini Calendering Finishing Fulling Mercerization Moire Roller printing Textile printing Woodblock printing

Related:

Dyeing Fiber History of textiles History of silk Knitting Pandy Terminology Manufacturing Preservation Weaving Yarn



Categories: Woven fabrics | Textile stubsHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from June 2007 | All articles lacking sources