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(Redirected from Water on the knee)

Swelling of the knee (colloquially known as water on the knee) occurs when excess fluid accumulates in or around the knee joint. There are many common causes for the swelling, including arthritis, injury to the ligaments or meniscus, or when fluid collects in the bursa. This condition is known as prepatellar bursitis.

Contents

1 Causes

2 Signs and symptoms

2.1 Pain

2.2 Swelling

2.3 Stiffness

2.4 Bruising

3 Diagnosis

3.1 X-ray

3.2 MRI

3.3 Joint aspiration

3.4 Blood tests

4 Treatment

4.1 Osteoarthritis

4.2 Gout or pseudogout

4.3 Infection

4.4 Arthroscopic knee surgery

4.5 Joint replacement

5 Prevention of Water on the Knee

5.1 See a doctor regularly

5.2 Avoid activities involving physical contact with the knees

6 Self-Care

6.1 Rest

6.2 Ice and elevation

6.3 Pain medication

6.4 Muscle-toning exercises

6.5 Managing your weight

7 References

//


Causes

Causes of the swelling can include arthritis, injury to the ligaments of the knee or an accident after which the brain’s natural reaction is to surround the knee with a protective fluid. There could also be an underlying disease or condition. The type of fluid that accumulates around the knee depends on the underlying disease, condition or type of traumatic injury that caused the excess fluid. The swelling can, in most cases, be easily cured.

Underlying diseases may include

Osteoarthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis

Infection

Gout

Pseudogout

Kneecap Bursitis

Cysts

Tumours

Overuse

Having osteoarthritis or engaging in high-risk sports that involve rapid cut-and-run movements of the knee football or tennis, for example means an individual is more likely to develop water on the knee.

In overweight or obese individuals the body places more weight on the knee joint. This causes more wear in the joint. Over time, the body will produce excess joint fluid.

Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms of water on the knee depend on the cause of excess fluid build-up in the knee joint. These may include:

Pain

With osteoarthritis, pain occurs when bearing weight. The pain typically subsides with rest.

Swelling

One knee may appear larger than the other. Puffiness around the bony parts of the knee appear prominent when compared with the other knee.

Stiffness

When the knee joint contains excess fluid, it may become difficult to bend or straighten the knee in certain cases.

Bruising

If an individual has injured his or her knee, they may note bruising on the front, sides or rear of the knee. Bearing weight on the knee joint may be impossible and the pain unbearable.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic tests include:

X-ray

A doctor will request an X-ray to make sure the patient hasn’t broken or dislocated any bones or to determine if there is arthritis present.

MRI

Magnetic Resonance Imaging detects abnormalities of the bone or knee joint, such as a tear in the ligaments, tendons or cartilage.

Joint aspiration

Also known as arthrocentesis, this procedure includes withdrawal of fluid from inside the knee for analysis such as cell count, culture for bacteria, and examination for crystals, such as uric acid or calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals found in gout or pseudogout.

Blood tests

If the knee is swollen, red and warm to the touch when compared to the other knee, a doctor may be concerned about inflammation due to rheumatoid arthritis or a crystalline arthritis, such as gout or pseudogout, or joint infection. Besides sending the joint fluid to a laboratory for analysis, he or she may request blood tests to determine a white blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and perhaps the level of C-reactive protein or uric acid. If blood tests reveal Lyme’s disease antibodies forming, the condition may be attributed to it.

Treatment

Treatment of water on the knee depends on the cause of the swelling.

Osteoarthritis

If the underlying disease happens to be Osteoarthritis, removal of the fluid from the knee joint can help relieve the pressure of joint fluid build-up. After aspirating joint fluid, the doctor may inject a corticosteroid into the joint to treat inflammation.

Gout or pseudogout

With these two conditions, uric acid or CPPD crystals deposit in joints and may cause inflammation in the joint and surrounding soft tissues. An intra-articular (joint) corticosteroid injection, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or NSAIDs, (for example Motrin and Advil) or colchicine may be recommended for treatment of an acute attack of gout or pseudogout. Allopurinol or probenecid may be started after an…(and so on)

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Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter

Developer(s)

Black Isle Studios

Publisher(s)

Interplay

Engine

Infinity Engine

Platform(s)

Microsoft Windows

Release date(s)

2001

Genre(s)

Computer role-playing game

Mode(s)

Single player, Multiplayer

Rating(s)

ESRB: T (Teen)USK: 12+ELSPA: 11+

Media

1 CD-ROM

Input methods

Keyboard, mouse

Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter is an official expansion pack to the computer role-playing game Icewind Dale developed by Black Isle Studios. It introduced many changes and additions to the original game, and included an all-new campaign. Some notable changes include such things as the addition of several types of classic Dungeons & Dragons enemies that were missing from the original (including barrow wights), a much higher experience point cap, new magical items to find and purchase, a special “Heart of Fury” difficulty setting for increased enemy power and higher experience point-gain, and the ability to set the resolution higher than 640×480. The game is still based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition ruleset, but like Baldur’s Gate II: Shadows of Amn, it included several changes (such as new spell progression tables) from the 3rd edition ruleset.

In order to access the new campaign, the player must enter a previously locked door in the town of Kuldahar while possessing a party of level 9 characters or above, or he could import his party after the main campaign (at which point it is exported).

Although the game contained numerous changes that most felt were for the better, it was heavily criticised for the length of its campaign, which was much shorter than the original game’s. Despite this, the game still achieved fairly positive reviews.

Trials of the Luremaster

Trials of the Luremaster is a free, downloadable expansion pack to Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter. It was released by Black Isle Studios due to criticism that, on its own, Heart of Winter was too short. It contains several new areas to explore, and a handful of new enemies to combat. It also acts as the game’s final patch, fixing a number of bugs and bringing the game’s version number up to v1.42.

External links

Complete list of HoW features

Trials of the Luremaster download page

Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter at MobyGames

Slideshow of the character portraits in the Icewind Dale series, including additions from Icewind Dale II in a separate slide



v?d?eBlack Isle Studios video games

Fallout series

Fallout* Fallout 2

Icewind Dale series

Icewind Dale Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter Trials of the Luremaster Icewind Dale II

Other games

Planescape: Torment Baldur’s Gate: Dark Alliance II Torn (cancelled) Van Buren (Fallout 3) (cancelled)

Key people

Feargus Urquhart Chris Avellone Josh Sawyer Darren Monahan Chris Jones

* Fallout was released prior to the studio’s official naming, and with a markedly different development team.



v?d?eDungeons & Dragons video games

List

Baldur’s Gate series

Baldur’s Gate (Tales of the Sword Coast) ? Baldur’s Gate II: Shadows of Amn (Throne of Bhall) ? Baldur’s Gate: Dark Alliance ? Baldur’s Gate: Dark Alliance II ? List of characters

Dark Sun series

Dark Sun: Shattered Lands ? Dark Sun: Wake of the Ravager ? Dark Sun Online: Crimson Sands

Dragonlance series

Champions of Krynn ? Death Knights of Krynn ? The Dark Queen of Krynn

Icewind Dale series

Icewind Dale (Heart of Winter) ? Icewind Dale II

Neverwinter Nights series

Neverwinter Nights (AOL game) ? Neverwinter Nights (Shadows of Undrentide ? Hordes of the Underdark ? Kingmaker) ? Neverwinter Nights 2 (Mask of the Betrayer ? Storm of Zehir ? Mysteries of Westgate) ? List of characters

Pool of Radiance series

Pool of Radiance ? Curse of the Azure Bonds ? Secret of the Silver Blades ? Pools of Darkness ? Forgotten Realms: Unlimited Adventures ? Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor

Savage Frontier series

Gateway to the Savage Frontier ? Treasures of the Savage Frontier ? Neverwinter Nights

Others

dnd ? Dungeon ? Dungeons & Dragons: Dragonshard ? Dungeons & Dragons Online: Stormreach ? Dungeons & Dragons Tactics ? Eye of the Beholder ? Forgotten Realms: Demon Stone ? Planescape: Torment ? The Temple of Elemental Evil



v?d?eBioWare Game Engines

Infinity Engine (1998-2002)

Planescape: Torment Baldur’s Gate (Tales of the Sword Coast) Baldur’s Gate II: Shadows of Amn (Throne of Bhaal) Icewind Dale (Heart of Winter Trials of the Luremaster Icewind Dale II)

Aurora Engine (2002-2007)

Neverwinter Nights (Shadows of Undrentide Hordes of the Underdark) The Witcher

Odyssey Engine (2003-2004)

Star Wars: Knights of the Old…(and so on)

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(Redirected from Resistance temperature detector)

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600.[citation needed]

Contents

1 General description

2 Function

3 Advantages and limitations

3.1 When to use RTDs or thermocouples

4 Resistance thermometer elements

5 Resistance thermometer construction

6 Resistance thermometer wiring configurations

6.1 Two-wire configuration

6.2 Three-wire configuration

6.3 Four-wire configuration

7 History

8 Standard resistance thermometer data

9 Temperature to resistance equation

10 Values for various popular resistance thermometers

11 References

12 See also

13 External links

//


General description

There are two broad categories, “film” and “wire-wound” types.

Film thermometers have a layer of platinum on a substrate; the layer may be extremely thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively low cost and fast response. Such devices have improved in performance although the different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum give “strain gauge” effects and stability problems.

Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential drift.

Coil Elements have largely replaced wire wound elements in the industry. This design allows the wire coil to expand more freely over temperature while still provided the necessary support for the coil. This design is similar to that of a SPRT, the primary standard which ITS-90 is based on, while still providing the durability necessary for an industrial process.

The current international standard which specifies tolerance and the temperature to electrical resistance relationship for platinum resistance thermometers is IEC 751:1983. By far the most common devices used in industry have a nominal resistance of 100 ohms at 0 , and are called Pt-100 sensors (’Pt’ is the symbol for platinum). The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a nominal 0.385 ohm/. RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/ are also available.

Function

Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer greater stability, accuracy and repeatability in some cases than thermocouples. While thermocouples use the Seebeck effect to generate a voltage, resistance thermometers use electrical resistance and require a power source to operate. The resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature.

Resistance thermometers are usually made using platinum, because of its linear resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness. The platinum detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain stable. A platinum wire or film is supported on a former in such a way that it gets minimal differential expansion or other strains from its former, yet is reasonably resistant to vibration. RTD assemblies made from iron or copper are also used in some applications.

Commercial platinum grades are produced which exhibit a change of resistance of 0.385 ohms/ (European Fundamental Interval) The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100? at 0 . This is defined in BS EN 60751:1996 (taken from IEC 60751:1995) . The American Fundamental Interval is 0.392 ?/, based on using a purer grade of platinum than the European standard. The American standard is from the Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers Association (SAMA), who are no longer in this standards field.

Resistance thermometers require a small current to be passed through in order to determine the resistance. This can cause resistive heating, and manufacturers’ limits should always be followed along with heat path considerations in design. Care should also be taken to avoid any strains on the resistance thermometer in its application. Lead wire resistance should be considered, and adopting three and four wire connections can eliminate connection lead resistance effects from measurements - industrial practice is almost universally to use 3-wire connection. 4-wire connection need to be used for precise application.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:

High accuracy

Low drift

Wide operating range

Suitability for precision applications

Limitations:

RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 . At temperatures above 660 it…(and so on)

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Basic components of a monochromatic XPS system.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative spectroscopic technique that measures the elemental composition, empirical formula, chemical state and electronic state of the elements that exist within a material. XPS spectra are obtained by irradiating a material with a beam of aluminium or magnesium X-rays while simultaneously measuring the kinetic energy (KE) and number of electrons that escape from the top 1 to 10 nm of the material being analyzed. XPS requires ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions.

XPS is a surface chemical analysis technique that can be used to analyze the surface chemistry of a material in its “as received” state, or after some treatment such as: fracturing, cutting or scraping in air or UHV to expose the bulk chemistry, ion beam etching to clean off some of the surface contamination, exposure to heat to study the changes due to heating, exposure to reactive gases or solutions, exposure to ion beam implant, exposure to ultraviolet light, for example.

XPS is also known as ESCA, an abbreviation for Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis.

XPS detects all elements with an atomic number (Z) of 3 (lithium) and above. This limitation means that it cannot detect hydrogen (Z=1) or helium (Z=2).

Detection limits for most of the elements are in the parts per thousand range. Detections limits of parts per million (ppm) are possible, but require special conditions: concentration at top surface or very long collection time (overnight).

XPS is routinely used to analyze inorganic compounds, metal alloys, semiconductors, polymers, elements, catalysts, glasses, ceramics, paints, papers, inks, woods, plant parts, make-up, teeth, bones, medical implants, bio-materials, viscous oils, glues, ion modified materials and many others.



Wide Scan Survey Spectrum for all elements.



High Resolution Spectrum for Si(2p) signal.

XPS is used to measure:

elemental composition of the surface (110 nm usually)

empirical formula of pure materials

elements that contaminate a surface

chemical or electronic state of each element in the surface

uniformity of elemental composition across the top surface (aka, line profiling or mapping)

uniformity of elemental composition as a function of ion beam etching (aka, depth profiling)

XPS can be performed using either a commercially built XPS system, a privately built XPS system or a Synchrotron-based light source combined with a custom designed electron analyzer. Commercial XPS instruments in the year 2005 used either a highly focused 20 to 200 micrometer beam of monochromatic aluminium K-alpha X-rays or a broad 10-30 mm beam of non-monochromatic (polychromatic) magnesium X-rays. A few, special design XPS instruments can analyze volatile liquids or gases, materials at low or high temperatures or materials at roughly 1 torr vacuum, but there are relatively few of these types of XPS systems.

Because the energy of a particular X-ray wavelength equals a known quantity, we can determine the electron binding energy (BE) of each of the emitted electrons by using an equation that is based on the work of Ernest Rutherford (1914):

Ebinding = Ephoton - Ekinetic - ?

where Ebinding is the energy of the electron emitted from one electron configuration within the atom, Ephoton is the energy of the X-ray photons being used, Ekinetic is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron as measured by the instrument and ? is the work function of the spectrometer (not the material).

Contents

1 History of XPS

2 Physics of XPS

3 Components of an XPS system

4 Uses and capabilities

5 Capabilities of advanced systems

6 Industries that use XPS

7 Routine limits of XPS

7.1 Quantitative accuracy

7.2 Analysis times

7.3 Detection limits

7.4 Analysis area limits

7.5 Sample size limits

7.6 Degradation during analysis

8 Materials routinely analyzed by XPS

9 Analysis details

9.1 Charge compensation techniques

9.2 Sample preparation

10 Data processing

10.1 Charge referencing insulators

10.2 Peak-fitting

11 Related methods

12 Further reading

13 See also

//


History of XPS

In 1887, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect. Twenty years later, in 1907, P.D. Innes experimented with a R?ntgen tube, Helmholtz coils, a magnetic field hemisphere (electron energy analyzer) and photographic plates to record broad bands of emitted electrons as a function of velocity, in effect recording the first XPS spectrum. Other researchers, Moseley, Rawlinson and Robinson, independently performed various experiments trying to sort out the details in the broad bands. Due to the wars, research on XPS came to a halt. After WWII, Kai…(and so on)

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