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Banknote Counters, Detectors ,

terfacing is a textile used on the unseen or “wrong” side of fabrics to make an area of a garment more rigid.

Interfacings can be used to:

stiffen or add body to fabric, such as the interfacing used in shirt collars

strengthen a certain area of the fabric, for instance where buttonholes will be sewn

keep fabrics from stretching out of shape, particularly knit fabrics

Interfacings come in a variety of weights and stiffnesses to suit different purposes. Generally, the heavier weight a fabric is, the heavier weight an interfacing it will use. Most modern interfacings have heat-activated adhesive on one side. They are affixed to a garment piece using heat and moderate pressure, from a hand iron for example. This type of interfacing is known as “fusible” interfacing. Non-fusible interfacings do not have adhesive and must be sewn by hand or machine.

v d e

Sewing

Techniques

Basting Cut Darning Dressmaker Embellishment Gather Heirloom sewing Pleat Ruffle Style line Tailor Gore (segment , digital amp meter .

Stitche , inside micrometers .

Backstitch Blanket Buttonhole Chain stitch Cross-stitch Embroidery stitch Lockstitch Overlock Running Sashiko Tack Zigzag

Seams

Bound Hong Kong Inseam Seam allowance Seam types

Notions

Bias tape Interfacing Passementerie Pattern Simplicity Trim Twill tape

Closures

Button Buttonhole Frog Hook-and-eye Shank Snap Velcro Zipper

Materials

Bias Yarn/Thread Selvage Textiles/Fabric

Tools

Bobbin Pin Pincushion Pinking shears Scissors Seam ripper Sewing needle Stitching awl Tape measure Thimble Tracing paper Tracing wheel Upholstery needle

Sewing machines

Bernina Brother Industries Feed dogs Pfaff Sewing machine Singer Tapemaster

Categories: Notions | SewingHidden categories: Articles lacking sources (Erik9bot)

2in1 microdermabrasion instrument ,



History

The first SEM image was obtained by Max Knoll, who in 1935 obtained an image of silicon steel showing electron channeling contrast. Further pioneering work on the physical principles of the SEM and beam specimen interactions was performed by Manfred von Ardenne in 1937, who produced a British patent but never made a practical instrument. The SEM was further developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart and was first marketed in 1965 by the Cambridge Instrument Company as the “Stereoscan”. The first instrument was delivered to DuPont.

Scanning process and image formation

In a typical SEM, an electron beam is thermionically emitted from an electron gun fitted with a tungsten filament cathode. Tungsten is normally used in thermionic electron guns because it has the highest melting point and lowest vapour pressure of all metals, thereby allowing it to be heated for electron emission, and because of its low cost. Other types of electron emitters include lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) cathodes, which can be used in a standard tungsten filament SEM if the vacuum system is upgraded and field emission guns (FEG), which may be of the cold-cathode type using tungsten single crystal emitters or the thermally-assisted Schottky type, using emitters of zirconium oxide.

The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from a few hundred eV to 40 keV, is focused by one or two condenser lenses to a spot about 0.4 nm to 5 nm in diameter. The beam passes through pairs of scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates in the electron column, typically in the final lens, which deflect the beam in the x and y axes so that it scans in a raster fashion over a rectangular area of the sample surface , price computing scale .

When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the electrons lose energy by repeated random scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped volume of the specimen known as the interaction volume, which extends from less than 100 nm to around 5 m into the surface. The size of the interaction volume depends on the electron’s landing energy, the atomic number of the specimen and the specimen’s density. The energy exchange between the electron beam and the sample results in the reflection of high-energy electrons by elastic scattering, emission of secondary electrons by inelastic scattering and the emission of electromagnetic radiation, each of which can be detected by specialized detectors. The beam current absorbed by the specimen can also be detected and used to create images of the distribution of specimen current. Electronic amplifiers of various types are used to amplify the signals which are displayed as variations in brightness on a cathode ray tube. The raster scanning of the CRT display is synchronised with that of the beam on the specimen in the microscope, and the resulting image is therefore a distribution map of the intensity of the signal being emitted from the scanned area of the specimen. The image may be captured by photography from a high resolution cathode ray tube, but in modern machines is digitally captured and displayed on a computer monitor and saved to a computer’s hard disc , currency counter .

Magnification

Magnification in a SEM can be controlled over a range of up to 6 orders of magnitude from about x25 to x 250,000 and exceptionally to 2 million times in the Hitachi S-5500 in-lens Field Emission SEM, imaging a specimen area about 60nm wide with resolution up to 0.4 nm. Unlike optical and transmission electron microscopes, image magnification in the SEM is not a function of the power of the objective lens. SEMs may have condenser and objective lenses, but their function is to focus the beam to a spot, and not to image the specimen. Provided the electron gun can generate a beam with sufficiently small diameter, a SEM could in principle work entirely without condenser or objective lenses, although it might not be very versatile or achieve very high resolution. In a SEM, as in scanning probe microscopy, magnification results from the ratio of the dimensions of the raster on the specimen and the raster on the display device. Assuming that the display screen has a fixed size, higher magnification results from reducing the size of the raster on the specimen, and vice versa. Magnification is therefore controlled by the current supplied to the x,y scanning coils, and not by objective lens power.

Sample preparation

An insect coated in gold, having been prepared for viewing with a scanning electron microscope.

All samples must also be of an appropriate size to fit in the specimen chamber and are generally mounted rigidly on a specimen holder called a specimen stub. Several models of SEM can examine any part of a 6-inch (15 cm) semiconductor wafer, and some can tilt an object of that size to 45 degrees.

For conventional imaging in the SEM, specimens must be electrically conductive, at least at the surface, and electrically grounded to prevent the accumulation of electrostatic charge at the surface. Metal objects require little special preparation for SEM except for cleaning and mounting on a specimen stub. Nonconductive specimens tend to charge when scanned by the electron beam, and especially in secondary electron imaging mode, this causes scanning faults and other image artifacts. They are therefore usually coated with an ultrathin coating of electrically-conducting material, commonly gold, deposited on the sample either by low vacuum sputter coating or by high vacuum evaporation. Conductive materials in current use for specimen coating include gold, gold/palladium alloy, platinum, osmium, iridium, tungsten, chromium and graphite. Coating prevents the accumulation of static electric charge on the specimen during electron irradiation.

Two important reasons for coating, even when there is more than enough specimen conductivity to prevent charging, are to maximise signal and improve spatial resolution, especially with samples of low atomic number (Z). Broadly, signal increases with atomic number, especially for backscattered electron imaging. The improvement in resolution arises because in low-Z materials such as carbon, the electron beam can penetrate several micrometres below the surface, generating signals from an interaction volume much larger than the beam diameter and reducing spatial resolution. Coating with a high-Z material such as gold maximises secondary electron yield from within a surface layer a few nm thick, and suppresses secondary electrons generated at greater depths, so that the signal is predominantly derived from locations closer to the beam and closer to the specimen surface than would be the case in an uncoated, low-Z material. These effects are particularly, but not exclusively, relevant to biological samples.

An alternative to coating for some biological samples is to increase the bulk conductivity of the material by impregnation with osmium using variants of the OTO process. Nonconducting specimens may be imaged uncoated using specialized SEM instrumentation such as the “Environmental SEM” (ESEM) or field emission gun (FEG) SEMs operated at low voltage. Environmental SEM instruments place the specimen in a relatively high pressure chamber where the working distance is short and the electron optical column is differentially pumped to keep vacuum adequately low at the electron gun. The high pressure region around the sample in the ESEM neutralizes charge and provides an amplification of the secondary electron signal. Low voltage (LV) SEM of non-conducting specimens can be operationally difficult to accomplish in a conventional SEM and is typically a research application for specimens that are sensitive to the process of applying conductive coatings. LV-SEM is typically conducted in an FEG-SEM because the FEG is capable of producing high primary electron brightness even at low accelerating potentials. Operating conditions must be adjusted such that the local space charge is at or near neutral with adequate low voltage secondary electrons being available to neutralize any positively charged surface sites. This requires that the primary electron beam’s potential and current be tuned to the characteristics of the sample specimen.

Embedding in a resin with further polishing to a mirror-like finish can be used for both biological and materials specimens when imaging in backscattered electrons or when doing quantitative X-ray microanalysis.

Biological samples

For SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects or shells can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms usually require chemical fixation to preserve and stabilize their structure. Fixation is usually performed by incubation in a solution of a buffered chemical fixative, such as glutaraldehyde, sometimes in combination with formaldehyde and other fixatives, and optionally followed by postfixation with osmium tetroxide. The fixed tissue is then dehydrated. Because air-drying causes collapse and shrinkage, this is commonly achieved by critical point drying, which involves replacement of water in the cells with organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone, and replacement of these solvents in turn with a transitional fluid such as liquid carbon dioxide at high pressure. The carbon dioxide is finally removed while in a supercritical state, so that no gas-liquid interface is present within the sample during drying. The dry specimen is usually mounted on a specimen stub using an adhesive such as epoxy resin or electrically-conductive double-sided adhesive tape,…

electronic kitchen scale ,



Features and uses

IBM typeballs (one OCR) with clip, 2 coin for scale

The ability to change fonts, combined with the neat regular appearance of the typed page, was revolutionary, and marked the beginning of desktop publishing. Later models with dual pitch (10/12) and built-in correcting tape carried the trend even further. Any typist could produce a polished manuscript. By 1966, a full typesetting version with justification and proportional spacing was released.

The possibility to intersperse text in Latin letters with Greek letters and mathematical symbols made the machine especially useful for scientists writing manuscripts that included mathematical formulas. The typical look of Selectric typed documents is hence still familiar to any scientist who reads conference proceedings, monographies, theses and the like from these times. (Proper mathematical typesetting was very laborious before the advent of TeX and done only for much-sold textbooks and very prestigious journals.)

The machine had a feature called “Stroke Storage” that prevented two keys from being depressed simultaneously. When a key was depressed, an interposer, beneath the keylever, was pushed down into a slotted tube full of small metal balls (called the “compensator tube”) and spring latched. These balls were adjusted to have enough horizontal space for only one interposer to enter at a time. If a typist pressed two keys simultaneously both interposers were blocked from entering the tube. Pressing two keys several milliseconds apart allows the first interposer to enter the tube, tripping a clutch which rotated a fluted shaft driving the interposer horizontally and out of the tube, making way for the second interposer to enter the tube some milliseconds later. While a full print cycle was 65 milliseconds this filtering and storage feature allowed the typist to depress keys in a more random fashion and still print the characters in the sequence entered. The powered horizontal motion of the interposer selected the appropriate rotate and tilt of the printhead for character selection , quartz counter .

The spacebar, dash/underscore, index, backspace and line feed repeated when continually held down. This feature was referred to as “Typamatic. , residential water meter .

Design

The Selectric typewriter was introduced on 23 July 1961. Its industrial design is credited to influential American designer Eliot Noyes. Noyes had worked on a number of design projects for IBM; prior to his work on the Selectric, he had been commissioned in 1956 by Thomas J. Watson, Jr to create IBM’s first house style these influential efforts, in which Noyes collaborated with Paul Rand, Marcel Breuer, and Charles Eames, have been referred to as the first “house style” program in American business.

Both Selectric and the later Selectric II were available in standard, medium, and wide-carriage models and in various colors, including red and blue as well as traditional neutral colors.

Mechanically, the Selectric borrowed some design elements from a toy typewriter produced earlier by Marx Toys. IBM bought the rights to the design. The typeball and carriage mechanism was similar to the design of the Teletype Model 26 and later, which used a rotating cylinder that moved along a fixed platen.

The mechanism that positions the typing element (“ball”) is partly binary, and includes two mechanical digital-to-analog converters, which are basically “whiffletree” linkages of the type used for adding and subtracting in linkage-type mechanical analog computers. Every character has its own binary codes, one for tilt and one for rotate.

When the typist presses a key, it unlatches a metal bar for that key. The bar is parallel to the side of the mechanism. This bar has several short projections (“fingers”). Only some of the fingers are present on any given code bar, those present corresponding to the binary code for the desired character.

When the key’s bar moves, its projections push against a second set of bars that extend all the way across the keyboard mechanism; each bar corresponds to one bit. All bars for the keys contact some of these crosswise bars. Those bars that move, of course, define the binary code.

The bars that have been moved cause cams on the driveshaft (which is rotating) to move the ends of the links in the whiffletree linkage, which sums (adds together) the amounts (“weights”) of movement corresponding to the selected bits. The sum of the weighted inputs is the required movement of the typing element. There are two sets of similar mechanisms, one for tilt, one for rotate. The reason for this is the type element has four rows of 22 characters. By tilting and rotating the element to the location of a character, the element could be thrust against the platen, leaving an imprint of the chosen character.

The motor at the back of the machine drove a belt connected to a two-part shaft located roughly halfway through the machine. The Cycle Shaft on the left side provided the energy that was used to tilt and rotate the type element. The Operational Shaft on the right side provided functions such as spacing, back spacing and case shifting. Additionally, the Op Shaft was used as a governor; limiting the left-to-right speed with which the carrier moved. A series of spring clutches were used to power the cams which provided the motion needed to perform functions such as backspacing. The Cycle Shaft was rotated when a spring clutch was released, driving a set of cams whose rotational motion was then converted into left-and-right motion by the whiffle tree. The system was highly dependent upon lubrication and adjustment and much of IBM’s revenue stream came from the sale of Service Contracts on the machines. Repair was fairly expensive, so maintenance contracts were an easy sell.

The locations of the characters on the element was not random. Punctuation marks and the underscore were deliberately placed so the maximum amount of energy was used to position the element, thus reducing the impact made by them and lessening the chance that the underscore would cut through the paper. Later on, a deliberate mechanism was added that reduced the force of the impact made by punctuation.

Tilt and rotate movements are transferred to the ball carrier, which moves across the page, by two taut metal tapes, one for tilt and one for rotate. The tilt and rotate tapes are both anchored to the right side of the carrier (the metal contraption upon which the type element is located). They both wrap around separate pulleys at the right side of the frame. They then wrap behind the carrier the are wrapped around two separate pulleys at the left side of the frame. The tilt tape is then anchored to a small, quarter-circle pulley which, through a gear, tips the tilt ring to one of four possible locations (The tilt ring is the device to which the type element is connected). The rotate tape is wrapped around a spring-loaded pulley located in the middle of the carrier. The rotate pulley under the tilt ring is connected through a universal joint (called a “dog bone”; it looked like a small bone) to the center part of the tilt ring. The type element is sprint-latched onto that central post. The type element rotates counter-clockwise when the rotate tape is tightened. The clock spring underneath the rotate pulley rotates the element in the clockwise direction. As the carrier moves across the page (such as when it returns), the tapes travel over their pulleys, but the spring-loaded pulleys on the ball carrier do not pivot or rotate.

To position the ball, both of the pulleys on the left side of the frame are moved by the whiffletree linkage. When the rotate pulley is moved to the right or left, the rotate tape spins the type element to the appropriate location. When the tilt pulley is moved, it tips the tilt ring to the appropriate location. When it moves, the tape rotates the spring-loaded pulley on the ball carrier independent of the carrier’s location on the page.

Case was shifted between caps and lower case by rotating element by exactly half a turn. This was accomplished by moving the right-hand rotate pulley using a cam mounted on the end of the operation shaft.

There was a proportional-spacing Selectric called a Composer that would backspace proportionally for perhaps 40 characters. The spacing code for the last characters typed was stored by small sliding plates in a carrier wheel.

Selectric II

After the Selectric II was introduced a few years later, the original design was designated the Selectric I. These machines used the same 88-character typing elements. However they differed from each other in many respects:

The Selectric II was squarer at the corners, whereas the Selectric I was rounder.

The Selectric II had a Dual Pitch option to allow it to be switched (with a lever at the top left of the “carriage”) between 10 and 12 characters per inch, whereas the Selectric I had one fixed “pitch.”

The Selectric II had a lever (at the top left of the “carriage”) that allowed characters to be shifted up to a half space to the left (for centering text, or for inserting a word one character longer or shorter in place of a deleted mistake), whereas the Selectric I did not. This option was available only on dual pitch models.

The Selectric II had an optional correction feature, whereas the Selectric I did not. This worked in conjunction with a correction ribbon: Either the transparent and slightly adhesive “Lift-Off” tape (for use with Correctable Film ribbons), or the white “Cover-Up” tape (for cloth or Tech-3 ribbons). The white or transparent correction tape was at the left of the typeball and its orange take-up spool at the right of the…

Voice Bathroom Scale(HT-2200) ,



Richard P. Carlton

Carlton, 27, joined 3M on October 26, 1921, as a manufacturing engineer, but he quickly assumed responsibility for laboratory operations and is credited with “giving form to a shapeless research program”, by replacing hit-and-miss testing with disciplined technical processes. He served as 3M’s fifth president from 1949-1953.

Along with being a leader who encouraged others, Carlton was an inventor in his own right. His laboratory sander allowed 3M to precisely measure the abrading performance of sandpaper, for the first time, which greatly improved quality. He also invented an advanced adhesive binder, an electrostatic process that increased the cutting power of sandpaper, a synthetic resin for waterproof sandpaper and a flexible sanding disc that conformed to auto fenders and other curved surfaces.

Even today, Carlton’s philosophy remains a bedrock foundation for all of 3M’s research and development activities:

“Every idea should have a chance to prove its worth. , glass digital scale .

“No plant can rest on its laurels. It either develops and improves or loses ground. , lan cable tester .

“A free interchange of data and idea … will always be our policy and our creed.”

Members

In three decades, more than 158 scientists have received Carlton Society awards for creating technologies and products that have produced significant growth for 3M and even some that have changed the world, such as pressure-sensitive tapes, repositionable notes, retroreflective sign materials, coated abrasives, twist-lock electrical connectors, fiberglass orthopedic casting materials and fabric protectors and stain repellents.

1963 (Carlton SocietyTM Charter Members)

Bert S. Cross - For his tireless and unflagging drive to achieve and to provide improved and new products, and particularly for his early contributions to coated abrasives.

Richard G. Drew - For his invention of pressure-sensitive masking tape and pressure-sensitive cellophane tape.

Lloyd A. Hatch - For his philosophy and guidance in research and development; for the development of an air classification process for uniform grading of abrasive minerals; and for his work with roofing granules.

Clifford L. Jewett - For his contributions and continued support of the 3M technical organization, and for the development of the modern roofing granule.

E. M. Johnson - For the introduction of sound engineering principles and improved mechanical equipment for manufacturing, primarily in the areas of tape and coated abrasives. (Awarded posthumously.)

E. Waldo Kellgren - For his contributions toward the development of rubber resin backing treatments for pressure-sensitive tapes, and for developing superior paper backings for waterproof sandpaper.

Joseph H. Kugler - For his inspiration and encouragement to others; for the introduction and extension of synthetic resin technology; and for his work on the electrostatic coating process used in the manufacture of coated abrasives.

Harvey J. Livermore - For numerous contributions in many fields, and for his work on water-dispersed adhesives.

Leonard R. Nestor - For developing and improving manufacturing processes for coated abrasives, and for his work on coated abrasives products.

George P. Netherly - For his development of gluebond sandpaper.

Francis G. Okie - For his contributions to the early experimental philosophy, and for the invention of waterproof sandpaper.

A. E. Raymond - For advancement of processes for producing coated abrasives, and for improvements to coated abrasive products.

Henry N. Stephens - For key contributions in the development of water-dispersed adhesives and, under R. P. Carlton, for the organization and development of 3M Central Research Laboratories.

George W. Swenson - For early laboratory scientific studies, and for the invention of colored ceramic-coated roofing granules.

Hubert J. Tierney - For broadening and improving the entire line of pressure-sensitive tapes, and for his contributions to the development of modern manufacturing processes.

1964

William E. Lundquist - For his dedicated and knowledgeable application of organic chemistry to such important 3M product developments as pressure-sensitive adhesives, tape backings, and plastic film.

Carl S. Miller - For his conception and reduction to practice of the principles of thermographic office copying and for his dedication to its development as a major product technology in 3M growth.

Wilfred W. Wetzel - For early contributions to the instrumental study of elasticity in pressure-sensitive adhesives, and for the technical leadership which established magnetic tape as the world principal medium for electronic recording and 3M as the world principal supplier of such tape.

1965

George V. D. Tiers - For fundamental scientific research in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy which enables rapid structural analysis of organic compounds and fluorochemicals; for many publications in that field which have helped to establish 3M reputation as a leader in research; and for numerous discoveries in fluorine chemistry.

1966

Warren R. Beck - For fundamental research, invention, and development in glass, glass bead, and glass bubble technology, particularly with glasses of high refractive index which are essential components of retroreflective materials, thereby making possible 3M commercial development of reflective signs, license plates, and related products. He holds 16 patents.

Philip V. Palmquist - For major contributions in the invention and development of all-weather reflective sheeting, reflective and antireflective coatings and finishes, and other related areas of great commercial significance to 3M.

Thomas S. Reid - For inventions and leadership in many areas of organic chemistry, including basic research in fluorine chemistry, leading to fluorochemical oil- and water-repellent finishes; for his work on adhesion promoters for polymer films and low-adhesion backsizes for tapes; and for the initiation and direction of research in medicinal chemistry.

Erwin W. Ulrich - For his work in the field of polyacrylate adhesives, vital components in industrial, retail, and medical tapes, and reflective products.

1968

Alvin W. Boese - For originating and developing nonwoven web technology in 3M, which has led to a wide variety of important commercial products ranging from decorative materials to protective face masks and surgical tape.

Carl A. Dahlquist - For invention and development of low adhesion backsizes which are widely used in pressure-sensitive tapes; and for fundamental research on adhesion and on visco-elastic materials.

Matthew W. Miller - For dedication to scientific and technical achievement; for fulfilling those efforts as a builder of men and laboratories; for developing the scientific and technical communications department; and for major contributions to the Abrasives Laboratory and to 3M Central Research Laboratories.

A. Farley Thomson - For development of neoprene elastomer materials having unique adhesiveness to a wide variety of surfaces, and which have contributed greatly to 3M leadership in adhesives; for joint invention of a new encapsulated adhesive technology; and for contributions at all stages of adhesives development.

1969

Thomas J. Brice - For fundamental research in fluorine chemistry, including the joint discovery of fluorocarbon sulfonic acids which are essential to 3M successful commercial development of fluorochemicals; and for initiating and supporting research on aromatic and epoxy polymers and prepolymers, ethyleneimine derivatives, polysulfonamides, and light-sensitive compounds.

Samuel Smith - For the development of commercially successful oil- and water-repellent fluorochemical textile finishes; for prediction and realization of soil release in permanent-press fabrics, a major advance in textile technology; and for discovery of a unique catalyst system for cationic polymerization.

1970

Joseph F. Abere - For his technical contributions in the development of 3M Scotchpak Packaging Films, reactive bisamide polymers, and 3M Scotchtab Can Sealing Systems; and for his interests in composite systems.

James R. Johnson - For his involvement in the fields of nuclear products, ceramics, and refractory metals; for his role in organizing and staffing 3M Physical Sciences Research Laboratory from which numerous new products have emerged; and for his authorship or coauthorship of 31 technical publications.

George M. Rambosek - For an unusually broad list of technical and chemical developments, many of which have resulted in commercially successful products, including Addent Dental Adhesive for high performance of honeycomb panels; adhesive drying processes, moisture-curing, one-part alkalineimine adhesives; 3M Tartan Surfacing; oleophobic papers prepared with perfluoronated materials; aerosol spray adhesives; 3M Podiasin Products and new podiatry material; and a polyisocyanurate catalyst.

Charles W. Walton - For his technical leadership and contributions to the development of structural adhesives which led to the revitalization and new growth of the Adhesives, Coatings, and Sealers Division; for his great perception in recognizing technical opportunities and guiding them through to successful commercial products; and for his unflagging support and encouragement of 3M Research and Development efforts.

1971

Arthur H. Ahlbrecht - For his technical contributions in the development of 3M fluorochemical program, especially in the design and synthesis of the critical monomers for the first commercial textile…

Bayonet Cap & Adaptor (BCA 01) ,



Hand held dispenser

A clear case tape dispenser

Some dispensers are small enough so that the dispenser, with the tape in it, can be taken to the point of application. The dispenser allows for a convenient cut-off and helps the operator apply (and sometimes helps rub down) the tape. It allows the tape to be taken to the point of application for operator ease.

Table Top Dispensers

Pull and Tear

Table top or desk dispensers are frequently used to hold the tape and allow the operator to pull off the desired amount, tear the tape off, and take the tape to the job.

Stationary Electronic Tape Dispenser

Table top dispensers are available with electrical assists to dispense and cut pressure sensitive tape to a predetermined length. They are often used in an industrial setting to increase productivity along manufacturing or assembly lines. They eliminate the need to manually measure and cut each individual piece of tape on high volumes of product or packaging. By automating this process, automatic tape dispensers reduce material waste caused by human error. They also reduce the time needed to cut each piece of tape, therefore reducing labor costs and increasing productivity.

A blue tape dispenser

Semi-automatic tape dispensers are often classified into 3 categories:

Light-duty: For light, non-industrial use

Industrial: A sturdier dispenser meant for use over one 8 hour shift per day

Heavy-duty: The sturdiest of automatic tape dispensers, constructed to withstand 24/7 use in back to back shifts

A pull and tear clear tape dispenser, in black plastic.

Due to the varying attributes of pressure sensitive tape, there are many different features of automatic tape dispensers which vary from model to model , fuel pressure gauge .

Adjustable Pressure Feed , tank level gauges .

Allows the user to control the amount of pressure placed on the tape when it is fed through the advancement rollers. This feature is useful for more efficient dispensing of tapes of all different thicknesses.

Modified Advancement Rollers

Depending on the type of tape being dispensed, many automatic dispensers have modified advancement rollers in order to function better with extra narrow tapes, protective film, foam tapes, etc.

Photosensor

Many dispensers come equipped with photosensors in order to detect the presence or absence of a piece of tape and facilitate advancement. Dispensers can also be equipped with dual photosensors in order to dispense two rolls of tape at once.

Creaser

Creasers are installed on tape dispensers in order to reinforce tapes that are very thin or have the tendency to curl up (tapes made of Mylar and Kapton often have this tendency).

Safety Guard Cutting Head

With a safety guard cutting head, cutting blades cannot function if a foreign object is obstructing the cutting area (fingers, tools, etc.).

Programmable Memory

With a programmable memory, users have the option of saving any number of preset lengths, depending on the dispenser, for automatic feeding and cutting.

Interval Switch

Allows the user to control the speed at which the tape is automatically dispensed and cut.

Counter

Maintains a running total of the amount of pieces dispensed.

Foot switch

Plugs into the dispenser and gives the user hands-free operation. Dispenses a piece of tape each time the switch is pressed.

Automated equipment

Some taping machinery is semi-automatic: the operator takes an object and puts it in or through a machine which automatically applies the tape. This helps save time and controls the consumption of tape.

Fully automatic equipment is available which does not require an operator. All functions can be automated.

High speed packaging machinery is an example of highly automated equipment.

Gummed (Water Activated) Tape Dispenser

Gummed (water activated) tape dispensers measure, dispense, moisten, and cut gummed or water activated tape. This tape is often composed of a paper backing and adhesive glue that is unable to adhere until it is ctivated by contact with water. To perform this step, gummed dispensers often employ a water bottle and wetting brush in order to moisten each piece of tape as it is dispensed. Many gummed dispensers also feature a top heater, which is mounted over the feed area in order to warm and maintain the dispenser water temperature. These heaters are used to ensure maximum wetting and are ideal for cold climates. Gummed tape dispensers are often used in packaging or shipping departments for closing cardboard boxes.

See also

Pressure sensitive tape

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tape dispenser

Categories: Office equipment

Epson Compatible / Refilling / CISS Ink Cartridges ,



Overview

Pen plotters print by moving a pen across the surface of a piece of paper. This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than raster graphics as with other printers. Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text, but do so very slowly because of the mechanical movement of the pens. Pen Plotters are incapable of creating a solid region of color; but can hatch an area by drawing a number of close, regular lines. When computer memory was very expensive, and processor power was very limited, this was often the fastest way to produce color high-resolution vector-based artwork, or very large drawings efficiently.

Traditionally, printers are primarily for printing text. This makes it fairly easy to control, simply sending the text to the printer is usually enough to generate a page of output. This is not the case of the line art on a plotter, where a number of printer control languages were created to send the more detailed commands like “lift pen from paper”, “place pen on paper”, or “draw a line from here to here”. The two common ASCII-based plotter control languages are Hewlett-Packard’s HPGL2 or Houston Instruments DMPL with commands such as “PA 3000, 2000; PD”.

Programmers using FORTRAN or BASIC generally did not program these directly, but used software packages such as the Calcomp library, or device independent graphics packages such as Hewlett-Packard’s AGL libraries or BASIC extensions or high end packages such as DISSPLA. These would establish scaling factors from world coordinates to device coordinates, and translating to the low level device commands. For example to plot X*X in HP 9830 BASIC, the program would be

10 SCALE -1,1,1,1

20 FOR X =-1 to 1 STEP 0.1

30 PLOT X, X*X

40 NEXT X

50 PEN

60 END

Early plotters (e.g. the Calcomp 565 of 1959) worked by placing the paper over a roller which moved the paper back and forth for X motion, while the pen moved back and forth on a single arm for Y motion. Another approach (e.g. Computervision’s Interact I) involved attaching ball-point pens to drafting pantographs and driving the machines with motors controlled by the computer. This had the disadvantage of being somewhat slow to move, as well as requiring floor space equal to the size of the paper, but could double as a digitizer. A later change was the addition of an electrically controlled clamp to hold the pens, which allowed them to be changed and thus create multi-colored output.

Hewlett Packard and Tektronix created desk-sized flatbed plotters in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, the small and lightweight HP 7470 used an innovative “grit wheel” mechanism which moved only the paper. Modern desktop scanners use a somewhat similar arrangement. These smaller “home-use” plotters became popular for desktop business graphics, but their low speed meant they were not useful for general printing purposes, and another conventional printer would be required for those jobs. One category introduced by Hewlett Packard’s MultiPlot for the HP 2647 was the “word chart” which used the plotter to draw large letters on a transparency. This was the forerunner of the modern Powerpoint chart. With the widespread availability of high-resolution inkjet and laser printers, inexpensive memory and computers fast enough to rasterize color images, pen plotters have all but disappeared.

Plotters were also used in the Create-A-Card kiosks that were available for a while in the greeting card area of supermarkets that used the HP 7475 6 pen plotter.

Plotters are used primarily in technical drawing and CAD applications, where they have the advantage of working on very large paper sizes while maintaining high resolution. Another use has been found by replacing the pen with a cutter, and in this form plotters can be found in many garment and sign shops.

If a plotter was commanded to use different colors it had to replace the pen and select the wanted color and/or width.

A niche application of plotters is in creating tactile images for visually handicapped people on special thermal cell paper.

Pen plotters have essentially become obsolete, and have been replaced by large-format inkjet printers and LED toner based printers. Such printers are often still known as plotters, even though they are raster devices rather than pen based plotters by the definition of this article. The newer plotters still understand vector languages such as HPGL2. This is because the language is an efficient way to describe how to draw the file using just text commands. A technical drawing in HPGL2 can be quite a bit smaller file than the same drawing in a pure raster form , refillable ink cartridges .

A pen plotter’s speed is primarily limited by the type of pen used. The typical plotter pen uses a cellulose fiber rod inserted through a circular foam tube saturated with ink, with the end of the rod sharpened into a conical tip. As the pen moves across the paper surface, capillary wicking draws the ink from the foam, down the rod, and onto the paper. As the ink supply in the foam is depleted, the migration of ink to the tip begins to slow down, resulting in faint lines. Slowing the plotting speed will allow the lines drawn by a worn-out pen to remain dark, but the fading will continue until the foam is completely depleted. Also as the fiber tip pen is used, the fiber tip slowly wears away from rubbing against the media, wearing down the thin conical tip into a thicker smudged line , color laser printer toner .

Ball-point plotter pens with refillable clear plastic ink reservoirs are available. They do not have the fading or wear effects of fiber pens, but are generally more expensive and uncommon.

Vinyl Sign Cutter

This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page.

A vinyl sign cutter (sometimes known as a cutting plotter) is used by professional poster and billboard sign-making businesses to produce weather-resistant signs, posters, and billboards using self-colored adhesive-backed vinyl film that has a removable paper backing material. The vinyl can also be applied to car bodies and windows for large, bright company advertising and to sailboat transoms. A similar process is used to cut tinted vinyl for automotive windows.

Colors available are generally limited only by the collection of vinyl on hand. To prevent creasing of the material, it is stored in rolls. Typical vinyl roll sizes are 24-inch and 36-inch width.

Generally the hardware is identical to a traditional plotter except that the ink pen is replaced by a very sharp knife that is use to cut out each shape, and the plotter may have a pressure control to adjust how hard the knife presses down into the vinyl film, allowing designs to be fully or partly cut out. The vinyl knife is usually shaped like a plotter pen and is mounted on ball-bearings so that the knife edge rotates to face the correct direction as the plotter head moves.

Once the letters or designs have been cut out, there are two methods for handling the application.

The most common method:

From the front surface, peel off the surround and unwanted areas of shapes from the letters or design.

Apply a slightly tacky carrier film over the letters or design (this film is similar to masking tape though clear carrier films are also used.

Cut out the area which includes the desired design, including the carrier film, vinyl and vinyl backing material.

Apply a small piece of masking tape to the sides of the resulting sandwich to ease positioning.

Ensuring that the area to which the vinyl is to be applied is clean, position the sandwich. When it is in the desired position, apply a hinge of masking tape to the lower edge. Remove the two side pieces of masking tape and the sandwich will fold down along the hinge.

Carefully remove the backing paper by peeling sideways, not away from the letters or design.

The cut vinyl is now held in position by the carrier film.

With a small plastic wiper (a credit card will also do), sweep the cut vinyl into contact with the mounting surface, stroking upwards and outwards, taking care to leave no air bubbles.

When all parts of the cut vinyl is in contact with the mounting surface, gently peel off the front paper sideways, and apply final pressure to the front face of the cut vinyl to produce a weather-resistant sign.

An older method:

Once the vinyl has been cut, the individual cut-out pieces are peeled off the backing paper and carefully assembled by hand on the mounting surface to form the final image.

A heat gun may be used to melt/bond the vinyl pieces to the substrate.

Sign cutters are primarily used to produce single-color line art. Multiple colors can be cut and assembled but the assembly process is extremely painstaking if the cut sections are thin and flexible.

As with the pen plotter, sign cutting plotters are in decline for general billboard and sign design. They are being replaced by wide-format inkjet printers that use special fade-resistant UV-protected solvent-based inks, which can directly print onto fabrics, vinyls, or plastic sheeting. These large inkjet printers have the added advantage of performing smooth color transitions and photo printing, which sign cutters cannot duplicate.

However, sign cutting plotters are still very much in use for precision cutting of graphics produced by wide-format inkjet printers, for example to produce shaped stickers and window graphics.

Static Cutting Table

A sign cutter typically functions like a traditional roll-fed or sheet-fed plotter, in that the media to be cut is kept rigid by a…

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Rizla history

The myth of creation

The Rizla tradition has a humble beginning that started in 1532, when a Frenchman named Alexandro Rizlette de Cramptone Lacroix began making paper. As the legend goes, one rainy day in the French city of Angoulme, Alexandro Rizlette de Cramptone Lacroix was inspired to begin the production of rolling papers when he traded a rolling paper for a bottle of fine champagne and realized their potential market.

The company breaks out

In 1660, the Lacroix family began serious production of rolling papers, having found them to be highly profitable. Despite the early success, it was not until nearly 76 years later in 1736 that the family acquired their own paper-mill, purchased by Francois Lacroix, who founded the Lacroix Rolling Paper company the same year , mini washing machine .

However, it was not until 1796 that the Lacroix brand got its first major production deal, during the Napoleonic wars, when Napoleon himself granted the company a licence to produce fine rolling papers for his soldiers who until then had been forced to roll cigarettes using paper torn from the pages of various books , indicator liquid .

In 1860, Pierre Lacroix perfected the formula for the Lacroix brand of rolling papers. In 1865, another change was made to the formula - the tissue previously used in the papers was replaced with paper made from rice. It is this change to rice paper that caused the name “RizLa+” to finally emerge: a combination of the French word Riz (meaning rice) with “La” and a cross, representing the Lacroix family name, which literally means “The Cross”. The Lacroix family changed the brand name in 1866.

The RizLa+ company was so successful, that by 1891 the Lacroix family had amassed enough wealth to construct a castle-like manor, which they dubbed Chateau Lonide Lacroix. The Lacroix family were selling their product throughout Europe and the United States by 1900.

The Rizla brand in the 20th century and beyond

RizLa produced some of the first flavoured papers in 1906, with the release of menthol and strawberry. The first Rizla Blue fine-weight rolling papers were produced in 1910, with thinner paper and a more pronounced tobacco flavour. RizLa also released one of the first rolling machines. The basic design of their original rolling machine is still used to this day. Recently, however, Rizla changed the design of their machine.

In 1942, the RizLa brand revolutionized the world of rolling papers when the Lacroix brothers acquired a patent for applying gum to the edge of rolling papers. This new feature solidified Rizla’s position as a leader in the rolling paper industry, placing them at the top of the market.

During 1944, RizLa changed its name yet again to the name “Rizla+”, which is still in use today.

In 1948, Rizla acquired the General Paper and Box Manufacturing Company, located in South Wales, dramatically improving their production capabilities. The same year, Rizla released the Rizla Green cut-corners, medium-weight rolling paper.

Sometime in 1977, thirty-three years after the brand name change, Rizla released the first of their King Size rolling papers.

In 1978 Fernand Painblanc took control of Rizla, bringing the tradition of Lacroix family ownership to an end.

The licorice-flavoured paper was released in 1981. In 1986, Rizla began rapid growth and large-scale advertising. One successful advertising campaign in 1986 was a popular series of calendars and posters. A caf franchise, which was featured at various concerts in the UK in 1996, was also extremely popular. In 1997 they produced a limited edition King Size Rizla+ Purple medium-weight, extra width, king size rolling paper, in celebration of the Phoenix music festival.

In 1997 Rizla was sold to Imperial Tobacco.

In 1998 Rizla continued their string of expansion and large-scale advertising, going so far as to release their own line of clothing, sold at their cafs. In 2002 Rizla closed a deal with Suzuki and became one of their top motor-bike racing sponsors, forming the Rizla-Suzuki racing team. The Caterham Superlight R500 sports is available with Rizla markings following its launch in collaboration with Rizla-Suzuki.

Rizla added a new paper to its line up in 2003, with the introduction of the Rizla Silver, Ultra-Thin, King Size rolling paper. In 2003 the UK Advertising Standards Agency upheld a complaint that Rizla had alluded to their products’ association with cannabis in a print advertisement that bore the caption “twist and burn”. The association being that ‘twist’ alludes to twisting the paper on the end of a joint to stop the tobacco and marijuana mix falling out, and ‘burn’ the process of lighting and smoking a joint.

In 2004, two more types of Rizla papers were released; one, the Rizla Red, Medium Weight, Slim paper is exclusive to the United Kingdom. The other variety released in 2004 was the Rizla Silver (regular size) Ultra-Thin rolling paper.

In 2002 Imperial Tobacco closed Rizla’s historic factory at Mazres-sur-Salat near Saint-Gaudens (south of France). In September 2005 Imperial Tobacco announced the closure of Rizla’s Treforest factory at Pontypridd near Cardiff in South Wales with a loss of 134 jobs. After the closure of the factory, Rizla production is now concentrated at Wilrijk, Belgium.

Since 2006, Rizla also sponsors the Suzuki MotoGP bike under Rizla Suzuki MotoGP team, currently ridden by Loris Capirossi and Chris Vermeulen.

Rizla types

Rizla+ rolling papers come in a variety of sizes, colours and types. Inside the last rolling paper of each packet is green cardboard, the size of the Rizla in the pack, and about 1mm thick.

Regular size papers

Regular size papers are 70 mm long.

Green Regular

Corners cut, glue strip, medium size.

Green Smooth

A Medium weight paper with cut corners which has over 2000 holes in the paper. This gives the cigarette a smoother taste.

Blue Regular

Glue strip, medium size, thin, its corners are not cut.

Silver Regular

Very thin, uncut corners, light weight.

White Regular

Chlorine free paper which comes in medium weight and cut corners.

Red Regular

Red Regular is a medium weight paper, its corners are not cut.

Orange

Medium Liquorice flavoured papers, with uncut corners.

King Size papers

Rizla King Size papers are 10 cm in length and significantly wider than the regular size. King Size papers come in two varieties, King Size and King Size Slim, which are not as wide as the normal King Size papers, but are slightly longer than the standard King Size papers. King Size papers are often used for the smoking of cannabis, due to the larger size being more suited to the sharing of a joint.

King Size Light Blue Slims

Rizla King Size Light Blue Slim rolling papers are 10cm in length, the same length as a normal blue king size paper, but notably thinner.

King Size Dark Blue

King Size Regular Papers of the same thickness as King Size Blue Slims except that they don’t have any glue.

Other rolling related products

Rizla also provides filter tubes in a variety of sizes, rolling machines (called a Rizla+ ‘concept’) and rolling boxes.

External links

http://www.rizla.co.uk/

http://www.rizla.com/

http://www.rizla-suzuki.co.uk/

http://www.rollingpapers.net/RizlaBlue/Rizblue.htm Collector’s site for Rizla Rolling papers

Categories: Cigarette rolling papers

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Job description

Traditionally, working from engineering drawings, tool makers marked out the design on the raw material (usually metal or wood), then cut it to size and shape using manually controlled machine tools (such as lathes, milling machines, grinding machines, jig borers, and jig grinders) and hand tools (such as files). Many tool makers now use computer-aided design , computer-aided manufacturing and CNC machine tools to perform these tasks.

Training

Although the details of training programs vary, many tool and die makers begin an apprenticeship with an employer, possibly including a mix of classroom training and hands-on experience. Some prior qualifications in mathematics, science, engineering or design and technology can be valuable. Many tool and die makers attend a 4- to 5-year apprenticeship program to achieve the status of a journeyman tool and die maker. Today’s employment relationships often differ in name and detail from the traditional arrangement of an apprenticeship, and the terms “apprentice” and “journeyman” are not always used, but the idea of a period of years of on-the-job training leading to mastery of the field still applies.

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Employment of tool and die makers is expected to decline in some countries due to increased use of automation, including CNC machine tools and computer-aided design,computer-aided manufacturing. On the other hand, tool and die makers play a key role in building and maintaining advanced automated manufacturing equipment , organic whey protein powder .

Jig maker

A jig maker is another term for a tool and die maker or fixture maker, usually in woodworking or in the metal industries. Actually a jig is what mounts onto a work piece, and a fixture has the work piece placed on it, into, or next to it. The terms are used interchangeably though throughout industry. A jig maker needs to know how to use an assortment of machines to build devices used in automation, robotics, welding, tapping, and mass production operations.

They are often advised by an engineer to do the pre- planned work of building the much needed devices. In a production shop they need to know about an extensive assortment of machines, tools, and materials, and are often the most experienced toolmakers or woodworkers. They are often the ones who create from the original plans, the jigs, the fixtures and devices designed by and with the occasional assistance of the production engineer.

The reason jig makers need to be experienced is so that they can make suggestions for efficient alterations and needed repairs. They sometimes assist and monitor the progress of the jig or the fixture’s gauging, locating, and innovative ability. Those who graduate to the level of jig and fixture makers often go on to gain automation skills, and the use of air, and electronic clamping procedures, and automation principles and equipment. They often need to know not only how to use basic machines to cut and machine steel and wood. For the most advanced, they need to be familiar with switches and the use of air supply equipment, various instruments, switches, hydraulic clamps, gauges, and more.

Properly built jigs and fixtures reduces waste, and produce perfect fitting parts, cutting out too much expensive hand work, mistakes and waste. Most are portable, and can be built or even moved throughout a facility. Some jigs and fixtures are as big as a car for placing a whole fender or chassis into them for assembly. It is how every volume shop works. The need for jigs and good gauging is necessary in furniture making for controlling quality and repeatability. A jig maker focuses on building tools in order to avoid placing parts incorrectly.

See also

Moldmaker

Machinist

References

^ Tool and die makers by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, retrieved April 8, 2009

v d e

Metalworking



Casting

Processes

Sand Lost foam Investment (Lost wax) Die Spin Shaw process Centrifugal Tilt Vacuum Continuous Billet

Furnaces

Cupola Blast Reverberatory Puddling Bessemer Open hearth Electric Arc Electric induction Rotary

Terminology

Flask Sprue Riser Cope and drag Draft angle Dross Green sand Molding sand Chill Ingot Pattern Slag



Forming, fabrication & finishing

General

Fabrication Piece work Sheet metal

Forming processes

Coining Cold rolling Drawing Electromagnetic forming Electrohydraulic forming Explosive forming Forging Hot rolling Hydroforming Pattern welding Progressive stamping Punching Rolling Sinking Spinning Swage

Joining processes

Brazing Crimping Riveting Soldering Welding

Finishing processes

Anodizing Case hardening Galvanization Heat treatment Mass finishing Patination Plating Polishing Shot peening Tempering



Machining & computing

CNC, CAD, and CAM

2.5D CAD CAE CAM CNC G-code Numerical control Stewart platform

Drilling and threading

Die head Drill Drill bit Drill bit shank Drill bit sizes Drill and tap size chart Drilling Jig borer Pin chuck Screw thread Tap and die Tap wrench

Grinding and lapping

Abrasive Angle grinder Bench grinder Coated abrasives Cylindrical grinder Diamond plate Flick grinder Dresser Grinding Grinding machine Grinding wheel Jig grinder Lapping Sanding Spark test Surface grinder Tool and cutter grinder Whetstone

Machining and milling

Electrical discharge machining Electro chemical machining Endmill Engraving Hobbing machine Lathe Machine tool Machining Milling cutter Milling machine Planer Pantograph Shaper

Machine tooling

Angle plate Chuck Collet Jig Fixture Indexing head Lathe center Machine taper Magnetic base Mandrel Rotary table Wiggler

Terminology

Chatter Cutting fluid Cutting speed Swarf Tolerance Tramp oil



Smithing

Smiths

Blacksmith Bladesmith Coppersmith Goldsmith Gunsmith Locksmith Pewtersmith Silversmith Tinsmith Whitesmith

Processes

Forging Pattern welding Planishing Raising Sinking Swaging

Tools

Anvil Forge Fuller Hammer Hardy hole Hardy tools Pritchel Slack tub Steam hammer Swage block Trip hammer



Tools

Cutting machines

Water jet cutter Band saw Cold saw Laser Miter saw Plasma

Cutting tools

Broach Burr Chisel Counterbore Countersink End mill File Guillotine shear Hand scraper Milling cutter Nibbler Reamer Throatless shear Tipped tool Tool bit

Forming tools

Brake Die English Wheel Flypress Hydraulic press Machine press Punch press Stamping press

Hand tools

Clamp Combination square Drift pin File card Hacksaw Hammer Hand scraper Machinist square Magnetic base Needlegun scaler Pipe and tube bender Pliers Punch Saw piercing Scriber Tap and die Tongs Vise Workbench Wrench

Machine tooling

Angle plate Chuck Collet Jig Fixture Indexing head Lathe center Machine taper Magnetic base Mandrel Rotary table Wiggler

Measuring instruments

Bore gauge Caliper Comparator Dial indicator Engineer’s blue Feeler Center gauge and fishtail gauge Gauge block Gauge Go-NoGo Machinist square Marking blue Marking gauge Marking out Micrometer Radius gauge Scale Sine bar Spirit level Straightedge Surface plate Tape measure Thread pitch Height gauge Vernier scale Wiggler

Smithing tools

Anvil Forge Fuller Hardy hole Hardy tools Pritchel Slack tub Steam hammer Swage block Trip hammer



Welding

Arc welding

Atomic hydrogen Gas metal (MIG/MAG) Flux-cored Gas tungsten (TIG) Plasma Shielded metal (MMA) Submerged arc

Other processes

Electrogas Electron beam Electroslag Forge Friction Friction stir Friction stud Laser beam Laser-hybrid Oxyfuel Resistance Spot Ultrasonic

Equipment

Power supply Electrode Filler metal Shielding gas Robot Helmet

Related terms

Heat-affected zone Weldability Residual stress Arc eye

Casting Fabrication Forming Jewellery Machining Metallurgy Smithing Tools & Terminology Welding

…

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Overview

A “fax machine” usually consists of an image scanner, a modem, and a printer.

Fax is an acronym for Fascimile Automated eXporter (FAX)

Although devices for transmitting printed documents electrically have existed, in various forms, since the 19th century (see “History” below), modern fax machines became feasible only in the mid-1970s as the sophistication increased and cost of the three underlying technologies dropped. Digital fax machines first became popular in Japan, where they had a clear advantage over competing technologies like the teleprinter, since at the time (before the development of easy-to-use input method editors) it was faster to handwrite kanji than to type the characters. Over time, faxing gradually became affordable, and by the mid-1980s, fax machines were very popular around the world.

Although many businesses still maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology has faced increasing competition from Internet-based systems. However, fax machines still retain some advantages, particularly in the transmission of sensitive material which, due to mandates like Sarbanes-Oxley and HIPAA, cannot be sent over the Internet unencrypted[citation needed]. In some countries, because electronic signatures on contracts are not recognized by law while faxed contracts with copies of signatures are, fax machines enjoy continuing support in business , commercial ice cream machine .

In many corporate environments, standalone fax machines have been replaced by “fax servers” and other computerized systems capable of receiving and storing incoming faxes electronically, and then routing them to users on paper or via an email (which may be secured). Such systems have the advantage of reducing costs by eliminating unnecessary printouts and reducing the number of inbound analog phone lines needed by an office , computer machine .

Capabilities

There are several different indicators of fax capabilities: Group, class, data transmission rate, and conformance with ITU-T (formerly CCITT) recommendations.

Fax machines utilize standard PSTN lines and telephone numbers.

Group

Analogue

Group 1 and 2 faxes were sent in the same manner as a frame of analogue television, with each scanned line transmitted as a continuous analogue signal. Horizontal resolution depended upon the quality of the scanner, transmission line, and the printer. Analogue fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured. ITU-T Recommendations T.2 and T.3 were withdrawn as obsolete in July 1996.

Group 1 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendation T.2. Group 1 faxes take six minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 96 scan lines per inch. Group 1 fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured.

Group 2 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.3. Group 2 faxes take three minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 96 scan lines per inch. Group 2 fax machines are almost obsolete, and are no longer manufactured. Group 2 fax machines can interoperate with Group 3 fax machines.

Digital

Group 3 and 4 faxes are digital formats, and take advantage of digital compression methods to greatly reduce transmission times.

Group 3 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.4. Group 3 faxes take between six and fifteen seconds to transmit a single page (not including the initial time for the fax machines to handshake and synchronize). The horizontal and vertical resolutions are allowed by the T.4 standard to vary among a set of fixed resolutions:

Horizontal: 100 scan lines per inch

Vertical: 100 scan lines per inch

Horizontal: 200 or 204 scan lines per inch

Vertical: 100 or 98 scan lines per inch (’Standard’)

Vertical: 200 or 196 scan lines per inch (’Fine’)

Vertical: 400 or 391 (note not 392) scan lines per inch (’Superfine’)

Horizontal: 300 scan lines per inch

Vertical: 300 scan lines per inch

Horizontal: 400 or 408 scan lines per inch

Vertical: 400 or 391 scan lines per inch (’Ultrafine’)

Group 4 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.563, T.503, T.521, T.6, T.62, T.70, T.72, T.411 to T.417. They are designed to operate over 64 kbit/s digital ISDN circuits. Their resolution is determined by the T.6 recommendation, which is a superset of the T.4 recommendation.

Fax Over IP (FOIP) can transmit and receive pre-digitized documents at near realtime speeds. Scanned documents are limited to the amount of time the user takes to load the document in a scanner and for the device to process a digital file. The resolution can vary from as little as 150 DPI to 9600 DPI or more. This type of faxing is not like the e-mail to fax service that still uses fax modems at least one way.

Class

Computer modems are often designated by a particular fax class, which indicates how much processing is offloaded from the computer’s CPU to the fax modem.

Class 1 fax devices do fax data transfer where the T.4/T.6 data compression and T.30 session management are performed by software on a controlling computer. This is described in ITU-T recommendation T.31.

Class 2 fax devices perform T.30 session management themselves, but the T.4/T.6 data compression is performed by software on a controlling computer. The relevant ITU-T recommendation is T.32.

Class 2.1 fax devices are referred to as “super G3″; they seem to be a little faster than the other 2 classes.

Class 3 fax devices are responsible for virtually the entire fax session, given little more than a phone number and the text to send (including rendering ASCII text as a raster image). These devices are not common.

Data transmission rate

Several different telephone line modulation techniques are used by fax machines. They are negotiated during the fax-modem handshake, and the fax devices will use the highest data rate that both fax devices support, usually a minimum of 14.4 kbit/s for Group 3 fax.

ITU Standard

Released Date

Data Rates (bit/s)

Modulation Method

V.27

1988

4800, 2400

PSK

V.29

1988

9600, 7200, 4800

QAM

V.17

1991

14400, 12000, 9600, 7200

TCM

V.34

1994

28800

QAM

V.34bis

1998

33600

QAM

Note that ‘Super Group 3′ faxes use V.34bis modulation that allows a data rate of up to 33.6 kbit/s.

Compression

As well as specifying the resolution (and allowable physical size of the image being faxed), the ITU-T T.4 recommendation specifies two compression methods for decreasing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted between the fax machines to transfer the image. The two methods are:

Modified Huffman (MH), and

Modified read (MR)

Modified Huffman

Modified Huffman (MH) is a codebook-based run-length encoding scheme optimised to efficiently compress whitespace. As most faxes consist mostly of white space, this minimises the transmission time of most faxes. Each line scanned is compressed independently of its predecessor and successor.

Modified Read

Modified read (MR) encodes the first scanned line using MH. The next line is compared to the first, the differences determined, and then the differences are encoded and transmitted. This is effective as most lines differ little from their predecessor. This is not continued to the end of the fax transmission, but only for a limited number of lines until the process is reset and a new ‘first line’ encoded with MH is produced. This limited number of lines is to prevent errors propagating throughout the whole fax, as the standard does not provide for error-correction. MR is an optional facility, and some fax machines do not use MR in order to minimise the amount of computation required by the machine. The limited number of lines is two for ‘Standard’ resolution faxes, and four for ‘Fine’ resolution faxes.

The ITU-T T.6 recommendation adds a further compression type of Modified Modified READ (MMR), which simply allows for a greater number of lines to be coded by MR than in T.4. This is because T.6 makes the assumption that the transmission is over a circuit with a low number of line errors such as digital ISDN. In this case, there is no maximum number of lines for which the differences are encoded.

Matsushita Whiteline Skip

A proprietary compression scheme employed on Panasonic fax machines is Matsushita Whiteline Skip (MWS). It can be overlaid on the other compression schemes, but is operative only when two Panasonic machines are communicating with one another. This system detects the blank scanned areas between lines of text, and then compresses several blank scan lines into the data space of a single character.

Typical characteristics

Group 3 fax machines transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white (bitonal) at a resolution of 20498 (normal) or 204196 (fine) dots per square inch. The transfer rate is 14.4 kbit/s or higher for modems and some fax machines, but fax machines support speeds beginning with 2400 bit/s and typically operate at 9600 bit/s. The transferred image formats are called ITU-T (formerly CCITT) fax group 3 or 4.

The most basic fax mode transfers black and white only. The original page is scanned in a resolution of 1728 pixels/line and 1145 lines/page (for A4). The resulting raw data is compressed using a modified Huffman code optimized for written text, achieving average compression factors of around 20. Typically a page needs 10 s for transmission, instead of about 3 minutes for the same uncompressed raw data of 17281145 bits at a speed of 9600 bit/s. The…

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Design

Main article: Inkjet printer

Thermal

Most consumer inkjet printers, such as those made by Canon, HP, and Lexmark (but not Epson) use a thermal inkjet; inside each partition of the ink reservoir is a heating element with a tiny metal plate or resistor. In response to a signal given by the printer, a tiny current flows through the metal or resistor making it warm up, and the ink immediately surrounding the heated plate is vapourised into a tiny air bubble inside the nozzle. As a consequence, the total volume of the ink exceeds that of the nozzle. An ink droplet is forced out of the cartridge nozzle onto the paper. This process takes a matter of milliseconds.

The printing depends on the smooth flow of ink, which can be hindered if the ink begins to dry at the print head, as can happen when an ink level becomes low; dried ink can be cleaned from a cartridge print head, by gentle rubbing with isopropyl alcohol on a swab or folded paper towel.

The ink also acts as a coolant to protect the metal-plate heating elements: when the ink supply is depleted, and printing is attempted, the heating elements in thermal cartridges often burn out, permanently damaging the print head. When the ink first begins to run thin, the cartridge should be refilled or replaced, to avoid over-heating damage to the print-head.

Piezoelectric

All Epson printers use a piezoelectric crystal in each nozzle instead of a heating element. When current is applied, the crystal changes shape or size, forcing a droplet of ink from the nozzle. A piezoelectric inkjet allows a wider variety of inks in a much finer quality than thermal inkjets, while more economical in ink usage.

Variants

Typically, two separate cartridges are inserted into a printer: one containing black ink and one with each of the three primary colors. Alternatively, each primary color may have a dedicated cartridge.

Some cartridges are specifically designed for printing photographs.

All printer suppliers produce their own type of ink cartridges. Cartridges for different printers may be incompatible either physically or electrically.

Since replacement cartridges from the original manufacturer of the printer are often expensive, some other manufacturers produce “compatible” cartridges as inexpensive alternatives. These cartridges sometimes have more ink than the original OEM branded ink cartridges and can produce the same, better, or inferior quality.

Some cartridges have incorporated the printer’s head (most HP, Dell and Lexmark printers use this system). Usually, they are more expensive, but the printers are cheaper. Others don’t include the printer head, but they are more economic and the printers are more expensive (for example, most Epson printers).

Pricin , bulk laser toner .

Typically, ink cartridges are very expensive. Many people, therefore, use compatible ink cartridges (those made by a company other than the printer manufacturer) that can sometimes match the quality, but with possible savings. Another alternative involves modifications that allow the use of continuous ink systems that use external ink tanks. Some people choose to use aftermarket inks. They can either refill their own ink cartridge, buy aftermarket remanufactured brands, or take them to a local refiller , glossy inkjet .

Ink cartridges, however, can be overridden, as some printers refuse to print when they claim the ink is low . One Which? researcher who over-rode the system found that in one case he could print up to 38% more good quality pages, even though the chip stated that the cartridge was empty . In the United Kingdom, in 2003, the cost of ink has been the subject of an Office of Fair Trading investigation, as Which? magazine has accused manufacturers of a lack of transparency about the price of ink and called for an industry standard for measuring ink cartridge performance . Which? stated that some cartridges cost over seven times more than vintage champagne per millilitre .

Consumers are often surprised at the price of replacing their printer cartridges, especially when compared with that of purchasing a brand new printer. The major printer manufacturers, Hewlett Packard, Lexmark, Dell, Canon, Epson and Brother, often break even or lose money selling printers and expect to recoup their losses by selling cartridges over the life span of the printer. (A “razor and blades” business model.) Since much of the printer manufacturers’ profits are made up of ink and toner cartridge sales, some of these companies have taken various actions against aftermarket cartridges.

Refills and third party replacements

This section needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008)

Infusing an inkjet printer

Many consumers[weasel words] opt to have their cartridges refilled or purchased remanufactured cartridges from third parties to save money over buying new cartridges. This is much cheaper (as one need only buy the ink and some other small raw materials), and a whole industry has grown up around this idea. The legality of this industry was brought to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit in the case of Lexmark Int’l v. Static Control Components. The Court ruled that reverse-engineering the handshaking procedure to enable compatibility did not violate the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.

There are several qualities and types of refilling, some of them being safe and successful, while other types can ruin the printer[citation needed] and/or give bad quality prints. Options include taking empty cartridges to “refillers” or “remanufacturers” who pump in new ink and buying store-branded ink..

Another option is for the consumer to refill the cartridges. Instructions for most cartridges are available on the World Wide Web, as well as sources who sell “bulk ink” in pints, quarts, and even gallons. This can be extremely cost effective if the consumer is a heavy user of cartridges. 1 US pint (470 ml; 17 imp fl oz) is sufficient to fill approximately 15 to 17 large cartridges of a typical capacity.

Generally speaking, Canon, Dell, HP, and Lexmark cartridges are not difficult to refill, while Epson cartridges usually require the additional purchase of a chip resetter to reset the counter chip inherent in the Epson cartridges. And some, or maybe all, Brother printers have scanners, where if the scanners recognizes the cartridge “empty”, it continue to register as empty even if refilled. Since the process involves handling ink, it can be inherently messy until experience has been acquired. Alternatively, 3rd party manufacturers have been offering refillable cartridges with auto reset chip to simplify the refilling process. These refillable cartridges are environmentally friendly and easy to refill.

Resetting Epson ink cartridge using a resetter tool

Laser/toner cartridges sold as “compatible” are usually re-filled cartridges, although many third-party newly manufactured cartridges exist. Inkjet cartridges sold as “compatible” are newly manufactured cartridges. Inkjet cartridges sold as “Remanufactured” are cartridges that have been used at least once by a consumer and then refilled by a third party.

See also

Cartridge (electronics)

Arizona Cartridge Remanufacturers Association Inc. v. Lexmark International Inc.

Inkjet refill kit

Razor and blades business model

References

^ “Hardware tips Inkjet Problems” (cartridge components), Stone, December 2004, webpage: DStone-Inkjet.

^ a b c d ‘Raw deal’ on printer ink, BBC, 3 July 2003

^ “Printers: Refills or new cartridges?”. PCWorld.ca. 2007-04-03. http://www.pcworld.ca/news/column/b8b60d050a01040800fd4bba7a3c8c1a/pg1.htm. Retrieved on 2009-07-22.

^ “Inkjet and Toner Refill Instructions”. Uni-kit.com. http://uni-kit.com/support.htm. Retrieved on 2009-07-22.

^ “Information on refillable cartridges with auto reset chip”. Ecbinkjet.com.au. http://www.ecbinkjet.com.au/newtech.htm. Retrieved on 2009-07-22.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ink-jet cartridge

BBC Radio 4 You and Yours - Hewlett Packard accused of misleading advertising in the UK, 26 April 2007

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