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Location

It is located between Aquila, Serpens and Hercules, northwest of the center of the Milky Way. The southern part lies between Scorpius to the west and Sagittarius to the east. It is best visible in the northern summer and located opposite Orion in the sky. Ophiuchus is depicted as a man grasping a serpent; the interposition of his body divides the snake constellation Serpens into two parts, Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda, which are nonetheless counted as one constellation.

Johannes Kepler’s drawing depicting the location of the stella nova in the foot of Ophiuchus.

Notable features

Star , wood child chair .

The brightest stars in Ophiuchus include Ophiuchi, called Rasalhague (at the figure’s head), and Ophiuchi , recliner massage chair .

RS Ophiuchi is part of a class called recurrent novae, whose brightness increase at irregular intervals by hundreds of times in a period of just a few days. It is thought to be at the brink of becoming a type-1a supernova.

Barnard’s Star, one of the nearest stars to the Solar System (the only stars closer are the Alpha Centauri binary star system and Proxima Centauri), lies in Ophiuchus. (It is located to the left of and just north of the V-shaped group of stars in an area that was once occupied by the now-obsolete constellation of Taurus Poniatovii, Poniatowski’s Bull.)

In 2005, astronomers using data from the Green Bank Telescope discovered a superbubble so large that it extends beyond the plane of the galaxy. It is called the Ophiuchus Superbubble.

In April 2007, astronomers announced that the Swedish-built Odin satellite had made the first detection of clouds of molecular oxygen in space, following observations in the constellation Ophiuchus.

The supernova of 1604 was first observed on October 9, 1604, near Ophiuchi. Johannes Kepler saw it first on October 16 and studied it so extensively that the supernova was subsequently called Kepler’s Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus’ Foot). Galileo used its brief appearance to counter the Aristotelian dogma that the heavens are changeless.

In approximately 40,000 years Voyager 1 probe will pass within 1.6 light years of the star AC+79 3888, which is located in Ophiuchus.

Deep-sky objects

Ophiuchus contains several star clusters, such as IC 4665, NGC 6633, M9, M10, M12, M14, M19, M62, and M107, as well as the nebula IC 4603-4604. The unusual galaxy merger remnant NGC 6240 is also in Ophiuchus.

In 2006, a new nearby star cluster was discovered associated with the 4th magnitude star Mu Ophiuchi . The Mamajek 2 cluster appears to be a poor cluster remnant analogous to the Ursa Major Moving Group, but 7 times more distant (approximately 170 parsecs away). Mamajek 2 appears to have formed in the same star-forming complex as the NGC 2516 cluster roughly 135 million years ago.

Ophiuchus holding the serpent, Serpens, as depicted in Urania’s Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. Above the tail of the serpent is the now-obsolete constellation Taurus Poniatovii while below it is Scutum.

Mythology

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (December 2008)

There exist a number of theories as to whom the figure represents.

The most recent interpretation is that the figure represents the healer Asclepius, who learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. To prevent the entire human race from becoming immortal under Asclepius’ care, Zeus killed him with a bolt of lightning, but later placed his image in the heavens to honor his good works. It has also been noted that the constellation Ophiuchus is in close proximity in the sky to that of Sagittarius, which has at times been believed to represent Chiron (the mentor of Asclepius and many other Greek demigods), though Chiron was originally associated with the constellation Centaurus.

Another possibility is that the figure represents the Trojan priest Laocon, who was killed by a pair of sea serpents sent by the gods after he warned the Trojans not to accept the Trojan Horse. This event was also memorialized by the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus in the famous marble sculpture Laocon and his Sons, which stands in the Vatican Museums.

A third possibility is Apollo wrestling with the Python to take control of the oracle at Delphi.

A fourth is the story of Phorbas, a Thessalonikan who rescued the people of the island of Rhodes from a plague of serpents and was granted a place in the sky in honor of this deed.

Astrology

Although Ophiuchus intersects the ecliptic, it is not a zodiacal sign in most versions of astrology. The signs are defined as 30-degree segments of the ecliptic, of which there are twelve, and they are named after nearby constellations at the time the system was developed, rather than being defined by the modern constellations. However, a few sidereal astrologers consider the Sun to be in the sign Ophiuchus when it is in the constellation Ophiuchus,[citation needed] which as of 2008[update] is November 30 to December 17.

Although not incorporated into the 12-sign zodiac, Ophiuchus and some of the fixed stars in it were sometimes used by astrologers in antiquity as extra-zodiacal indicators (i.e. astrologically significant celestial phenomena lying outside of the 12-sign zodiac proper). An anonymous 4th century astrologer, often known as Anonymous of 379, seems to have associated “the bright star of Ophiuchus”, likely Ophiuchi, with doctors, healers or physicians ().

Citations

^

^ Star ’soon to become supernova’. BBC News, 2006-07-23

^ “Huge ‘Superbubble’ of Gas Blowing Out of Milky Way”. PhysOrg.com. 2006-01-13. http://www.physorg.com/news9882.html. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.

^ Molecular Oxygen Detected For The First Time In The Interstellar Medium

^ Voyager - Mission - Interstellar Mission

^ Mamajek, Eric E. (2006). “A New Nearby Candidate Star Cluster in Ophiuchus at d = 170 pc”. Astronomical Journal 132: 2198. doi:10.1086/508205. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006AJ….132.2198M.

^ Jilinski, E., Ortega, V.G., de la Reza, R., Drake, N.A., and Bazzanella, B. (2009). “Dynamical Evolution and Spectral Characteristics of the Stellar Group Mamajek 2″. Astrophysical Journal 691: 212. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/1/212. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApJ…691..212J.

^ Franz Cumont and Franz Boll, Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum, Vol. 5, part 1, Brussels, 1904, pg. 210.

References

Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ophiuchus

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica article Serpentarius.

The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ophiuchus

Star Tales Ophiuchus

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The 88 modern constellations

Andromeda Antlia Apus Aquarius Aquila Ara Aries Auriga Botes Caelum Camelopardalis Cancer Canes Venatici Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Carina Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Chamaeleon Circinus Columba Coma Berenices Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Crux Cygnus Delphinus Dorado Draco Equuleus Eridanus Fornax Gemini Grus Hercules Horologium Hydra Hydrus Indus Lacerta Leo Leo Minor Lepus Libra Lupus Lynx Lyra Mensa Microscopium Monoceros Musca Norma Octans Ophiuchus Orion Pavo Pegasus Perseus Phoenix Pictor Pisces Piscis Austrinus Puppis Pyxis Reticulum Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Sculptor Scutum Serpens Sextans Taurus Telescopium Triangulum Triangulum Australe Tucana Ursa Major Ursa Minor Vela Virgo Volans Vulpecula

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Constellation history

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The 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy after 150 AD

Andromeda Aquarius Aquila Ara Argo Navis Aries Auriga Botes Cancer Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Cygnus Delphinus Draco Equuleus Eridanus Gemini Hercules Hydra Leo Lepus Libra Lupus Lyra Ophiuchus Orion Pegasus Perseus Pisces Piscis Austrinus Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Serpens Taurus Triangulum Ursa Major Ursa Minor Virgo

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The 41 modern additional constellations from 1603 AD and forth

Bayer 1603: Apus Chamaeleon Coma Berenices Dorado Grus Hydrus Indus Musca Pavo Phoenix Triangulum Australe Tucana Volans Vulpecula Plancius&Bartsch 1624:…

Volleyball / Promotional Volleyball ,



Show premise

Set in the then-future year of 1983, the series tells the tale of the crew and passengers of a sub-orbital transport spaceship called the Spindrift. In the pilot episode, the Spindrift is en route from Los Angeles to London via the ultra-fast route of a parabolic trajectory. Just beyond Earth’s boundary with space, the Spindrift encounters a strange space storm or wormhole, and is transported to a mysterious planet where everything is twelve times larger than its counterpart on Earth. The Spindrift crew calls the inhabitants “the giants”. Given relative proportions shown on the show, the giants are about 72 feet tall. Everything on their planet is built to their scale buildings, cars, animals, etc. The Spindrift crashes on this planet and becomes inoperable.

These giants are humanoid in form, but their society is a dictatorship of which not too many details are given, and that employs no symbols. The giant government has offered a reward for the capture of the tiny Earth people, presumably because of the Earth people’s superior technology. Episodes often have the plot of giants capturing one of the passengers or crew, with the rest having to rescue the captive. The Earth people avoid capture most of the time because their spaceship is hidden in a forest outside the city.

Production

The show was created by Irwin Allen using his earlier Lost in Space series as the template. For instance, there is a foolish, greedy traitor named Alexander B. Fitzhugh (Kurt Kasznar), in a United States military uniform who continually tries to deceive the young character, Barry Lockridge (portrayed by Stefan Arngrim), paralleling the relationship in Lost in Space between Doctor Zachary Smith and the young Will Robinson.

With a budget of US$250,000 per episode, Land of the Giants set a new record. The actors had to be physically fit, as they had to do many stunts themselves, such as climbing giant curbs, phone cords and ropes.

Series setting

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia’s quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (April 2007)

Very little is known about the home planet of the Giants. That is partially because the Spindrift crew very seldom leaves the “City of the Giants” where their spaceship crashed in the pilot. Only two other societies are ever seen: they are “The Land of the Lost” and “Secret City of Limbo” both of which are glimpsed only briefly. Both are descriptive phrases rather than names. No name is ever given for either of these societies.

No name has ever even been established for the mysterious planet, but the inhabitants seem to know of Earth, Venus and Mars, referring to them by name in one episode. (The first mention of Earth by the giants was in the second episode, and was matter of factly mentioned.) This may be because of prior crashes of ships from Earth. Exactly where this planet is located is also never made clear. However it can be supposed that it is a natural part of the Earth’s solar system, but is, by some quirk of nature/parallel universe, unknown to Earth, perhaps the natural warp that transits ships from Earth also prevents the passage of light and perhaps even gravity perturbations. In the episode, “On a Clear Night You Can See Earth”, the character Captain Steve Burton (Gary Conway) claims to have seen Earth through a set of infrared goggles invented by the giants, implying that the two worlds are indeed different but near enough to each other to be able to see one from the other. Whether or not he is telling the truth is unclear.

The only established method by which Earth people may reach the planet is some sort of high-altitude spacecraft, passing through what one giant calls a “dimension lock” which seems to act more as a space warp or wormhole. The first (and only) mention of the phrase “dimension lock,” by a giant in the second episode of the first season (“Ghost Town”). The giant refers to the space warp as “our dimension lock,” as if it were built or at least known by the inhabitants of the giant planet. The Spindrift crew just calls it a space warp. The term wormhole is never used. It is not entirely clear what the term dimension lock means. It is possible that the “dimension lock” is a peculiarity of the Giants’ planet that keeps it from causing gravity perturbations that would betray its existence such as altering the trajectories of planets, asteroids, comets and Earth space probes.

Although several episodes show that at least six other flights have landed on the planet, no episode shows that anyone ever successfully returned to Earth. The first mention of other visitors from Earth was in episode 2 (“Ghost Town”), where another ship was described as crashing long ago without any survivors. In episode 4 (“Underground”) another Earth ship is described as crashing three years prior with no survivors.

Several episodes show crews surviving the initial crash, only to be killed later. The episode “Brainwash” has a crew of little people surviving long enough to build a radio station that can communicate with Earth. They are killed shortly thereafter. The episodes “Golden Cage” and “The Lost Ones” show survivors of other crashes, where only certain crew members have survived. Only the Spindrift crew seems to have survived long term, with its party intact. The impression given is that Earth people do not do well for long in giant captivity.

One country or continent or hemisphere is wholly dominated by an authoritarian government which, however, tolerates the existence of entrepreneurs and businessmen. Giant society does not seem very militarized nor is day-to-day life restricted with curfews and other regulations; it simply does not tolerate any effort to effect political change. In the episode “Doomsday” it is mentioned that there are many nations on this giant planet. Exactly what the political situation is on other continents is not known, although at least one overseas land (“The Land of the Lost”) has a despotic ruler. The Air Traffic Control will tell those who venture far out to sea that they should turn back, that nothing beyond that sea has been explored nor is their current contact; whether this is an official government line or the truth is not known. It should be noted that the Air Traffic Controller has behind him what appears to be a map of the giant planet.

In spite of the authoritarian government, there are several dissident movements at work that either help other dissenters (such as the Earth people) or are actively working to unseat the government. Whether or not these dissidents are any better than the government is not known. In later episodes the Earth people end up fighting with these dissidents. They do this to stop efforts to disrupt giant society. The government has established the SID, Special Investigations Department, to deal with assorted dissidents, but it also has taken the lead in dealing with the Earth people.

The technology largely resembles 1950s and 1960s Earth, slightly more advanced in some respects (e.g. cloning, radio controlled toys, small nuclear reactors) and slightly behind in others (does not have microelectronics, hearing aids, or manned space flight). Culturally, the society resembles the United States. The Earth people find themselves able to cope at a cultural level, dealing with movie studios, musicians, hobos, nuclear families, orphanages, folklore, jealousies and rivalries, law-breakers and patriots, criminals and honest people, poor and rich, sympathetic and hostile. Their efforts to get around are facilitated by the ubiquity of large drains directly from interior rooms to the pavement level at an outside wall of most buildings. The fact that English is the local language no doubt adds to these conveniences. (In the first few episodes a made-up language is used for signage but this is quickly dropped. English is spoken throughout).

The Earth people’s objectives are: (1) survival, by obtaining food and by avoiding capture by the native people or menace from small animals like cats and dogs; (2) repair of their spacecraft so they may take off and attempt a return to Earth. They largely manage survival with the help of their ingenuity, their small size (enabling them to sneak around and hide), the occasional giant sympathizer, and, of course, their technology, which (per dialogue spoken in one of the episodes) is about fifty years ahead of the giants’ technology , men’s wetsuit .

They do not achieve the second objective, however, since the primary systems of their craft, the Spindrift, are heavily damaged, and they may have had to use precious resources in order to safeguard themselves from capture. The secondary systems are insufficient to allow take-off and the sub-orbital flight required. They are unable to successfully integrate the native technology as it is bulky and less advanced; in one episode, an experimental nuclear reactor provided by an engineering student produces dangerous side effects and is prone to overload. They also cannot trust the giants who might be able to offer the Earth people a ride home in exchange for technical assistance , silicone caps .

They are aided in the first goal, and at least somewhat hindered in the second, by the leadership of Captain Steve Burton. He behaves as leader, protector to the passengers and crew and his leadership has rescued them from a number of difficulties. However, Captain Burton also functions as a guardian of the gate who tries to keep the giants from ever reaching Earth. In the episode “Brainwash”, giant police officer Ashim (Warren Stevens) says “Maybe we can find the home planet of these little people. It may be a very tiny planet, but rich beyond our dreams.” It is not entirely clear what that means. Nor…

Petit Beurre With Cocoa ,

ude oil washing (COW) is washing out the residue from the tanks of an oil tanker using the crude oil cargo itself, after the cargo tanks have been emptied. Crude Oil is pumped back and preheated in the slop tanks, then sprayed back via high pressure nozzles in the cargo tanks on to the walls of the tank. Due to the sticky nature of the crude oil, the oil clings to the tank walls, and such oil adds to the cargo ‘remaining on board (the ROB). By COWing the tanks, the amount of ROB is significantly reduced, and with the current high cost of oil, the financial savings are significant, both for the Charterer and the Shipowner. If the cargo ROB is deemed as ‘liquid and pumpable’ then the Charterers can claim from the owner for any cargo loss for normally between 0.3% up to 0.5%. It replaced the load on top and seawater washing systems, both of which involved discharging oil-contaminated water into the sea. MARPOL 73/78 made this mandatory equipment for oil tankers of 20,000 tons or greater deadweight.

Seawater washing

Originally oil tankers used one set of tanks for cargo and about one third of the same tanks were for water ballast on their empty trips. High pressure, hot, seawater jets were used to clean the tanks and the mixture of seawater and residue called slops discharged into the sea, as was the oil-contaminated ballast water. The 1954 OILPOL Convention attempted to reduce the harm by prohibiting such discharges within 50 miles (80 km) of most land and 100 miles (160 km) of certain particularly sensitive areas.

Load on top

The discharges from seawater washing were still considered a problem and during the 1960s the load on top approach began to be adopted. The mixture of cleaning water and residue was pumped into a slop tank and allowed to separate into oil and water during the journey. The water portion was then discharged, leaving only crude oil in the slop tank. This was pumped into the main tanks and the new cargo loaded on top of it, recovering as much as 800 tons of oil which was formerly discarded , refined crude oil .

Crude oil washin , kettle cooking .

Even with load on top there is still some oil in the discharged water from the slop tank. Starting in the 1970s, equipment capable of using crude oil itself for washing began to replace the water-based washing, leading to the current technique of crude oil washing. This reduces the remaining deliberate discharge of oil-contaminated water and increases the amount of cargo discharged, providing a further benefit to the cargo owner , chicken bouillon .

Crude oil washing equipment became mandatory for new tankers of 20,000 tons or more deadweight with the 1978 Protocol to the 1973 MARPOL Convention. Revised specifications for the equipment were introduced in 1999 , the best motor oil .

Modern tankers also use segregated ballast tanks and these remove the problem of discharge of ballast water.

External links

International Maritime Organization description of Crude Oil Washing

Categories: Petroleum production | Ocean pollution

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Renewable energy sources and renewable energy initiatives

Wind power

Main article: Wind power in Australia

Between 1-3% of Australia’s electricity is sourced from wind power.[citation needed] As of 2008, there will be 42 wind farms operating that produce approximately 1200 megawatts (MW) of wind power capacity. Wind power in South Australia is a fast growing industry, and the state of South Australia is well suited for wind farms. More wind power is generated in South Australia than any other Australian state or territory.

Wattle Point Wind Farm (91 MW , cooking oil suppliers .

Lake Bonney Wind Farm (Stage 1) (80.5 MW)

Mount Millar Wind Farm (70 MW)

Cathedral Rocks Wind Farm (66 MW)

Canunda Wind Farm (48 MW)

Starfish Hill Wind Farm (34.5 MW)

Hallett Wind Farm (353 MW)

Lake Bonney Wind Farm (stage 2) (95 MW) (159 MW)

Snowtown Wind Farm (99 MW)

Solar

Main article: Solar energy in Australia

See also: Feed-in tariffs in Australia

Solar photovoltaics

Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology generates electricity from sunlight, and it can be used in grid-connected and off-grid applications.

The issue for the Australian photovoltaics industry today is that there is enormous market potential, built up through a natural competitiveness in Australian research and development, industry investment and government policy support. However, despite this, the industry is not yet self-sustaining and advantages gained to date could be lost. A 2004 market report suggested that a partnership between government and industry is necessary:

“The PV industry cannot continue to actively invest in strategic industry development unless the Australian government is also committed to the journey. The industry … requires policy and program support to assist it in bridging the gap to mainstream commercial competitiveness.”

Two recent projects which illustrate co-operation between industry and government are the solar power station planned for north-western Victoria, and the development of new solar cells.

Mildura Solar concentrator power station

It may contain information of a speculative nature and the content may change as the construction and/or completion of the power station approaches, and more information becomes available.

Many projects have demonstrated the feasibility of solar power in Australia and a large new solar power station in Victoria is planned.

Solar Systems is to build the world most advanced photovoltaic (PV) heliostat solar concentrator power station in north-western Victoria. The 154 MW, A$420 million project, will generate 270,000 MWh per year, enough for more than 45,000 homes. It will aid in reducing salinity and create jobs during manufacture, construction and operation. It will also reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 400,000 tonnes per year. Full commissioning is expected in 2013, with the first stage to be completed in 2010.

The essential components of the power plant, developed by Solar Systems over the past 16 years, are:

“An ultra powerful solar module for use in concentrated sunlight”.

“A cooling system to keep solar cells operating at 60C to optimise the operation of the PV modules in a concentrated solar beam that can melt steel”.

“Low cost, high performance mirror concentrator systems”.

“A control system to manage the power station to deliver maximum reliability and output”.

The commercialisation of this technology has already seen four smaller solar power stations established in central Australia, with support from the Australian Greenhouse Office.

Windorah Solar Farm

Windorah (population 100), an outback town in south west Queensland has a 5 dish, AUD4.5M solar farm which commenced operation in December 2008. It is anticipated to reduce diesel usage by 100,000 litres and greenhouse gase emissions by 300 tonnes, per annum. The $4.5 million Windorah solar farm’s five dishes worked together for the first time last week.

New photovoltaic technology

SLIVER Cell (TM) photovoltaic technology uses just one tenth of the costly and limited supply of silicon used in conventional solar panels while matching power, performance, and efficiency. Professor Andrew Blakers, Director of the Australian National University Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, invented the technology with colleague Dr Klaus Weber and developed it with funding from energy supplier Origin Energy and the Australian Research Council. Blakers and Weber won the Australian Institute of Physics’ Walsh Medal for their work. Origin Energy is presently developing SLIVER modules for commercialisation at its A$20M pilot plant in Regency Park, South Australia.

Solar thermal energy

Main article: Solar thermal energy in Australia

Australia has developed world leading solar thermal technologies, but with only very low levels of actual use. Domestic solar water heating is the most common solar thermal technology.

Solar water heating

Main article: Solar hot water in Australia

During the 1950s, Australia Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) carried out world leading research into flat plate solar water heaters. A solar water heater manufacturing industry was subsequently established in Australia and a large proportion of the manufactured product was exported. Four of the original companies are still in business and the manufacturing base has now expanded to 24 companies. Despite an excellent solar resource, the penetration of solar water heaters in the Australian domestic market is only about 5%, with new dwellings accounting for most sales.

Solar thermal power

There are no large large scale solar thermal power stations in Australia, although the country has significant research, development and commercialisation efforts.

CSIRO’s National Solar Energy Centre in Newcastle, NSW houses a 500 kW (thermal) solar central receiver system used as a research and development facility.

The Australian National University (ANU) has worked on dish concentrator systems since the early 1970s and early work lead to the construction of the White Cliffs solar thermal station. In 1994, the first ‘Big Dish’ 400 m2 solar concentrator was completed on the ANU campus. In 2005, Wizard Power Pty Ltd was established by Canberra investor Tony Robey in order to take the Big Dish technology to commercial deployment. Wizard Power will construct a pilot power station at Whyalla to demonstrate a next-generation Big Dish design together with a chemical energy storage system using ammonia.

Research activities at the University of Sydney and University of New South Wales have spun off into Solar Heat and Power Pty Ltd (now Ausra), which is currently building a major project at Liddell Power station in the Hunter Valley. The CSIRO Division of Energy Technology has opened a major solar energy centre in Newcastle that has a tower system purchased from Solar Heat and Power and a prototype trough concentrator array developed in collaboration with the ANU.

Cloncurry, a north-west Queensland town, has been chosen as the site for an innovative $31 million (including a $7 million government grant) solar thermal power station. The 10 MW solar thermal power station would deliver about 30 million kilowatt hours of electricity a year, enough to power the whole town. Ergon Energy will develop the project which should be running by early 2010.

In August 2008 Worley Parsons, an Australian engineering firm, announced plans to build world biggest solar plant in Australia within three years. Backed by nine Australian companies, including miners BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto, they have launched a study into finding possible sites to host the $1 billion plant.

Solar Cities

Solar Cities in Australia is an innovative $75 million (US$56.5 million) program which is designed to demonstrate how solar power, smart meters, energy conservation and new approaches to electricity pricing can combine to provide a sustainable energy future in urban locations throughout Australia. It is a partnership approach that involves all levels of Government, the private sector and the local community. Adelaide, Townsville, Blacktown and Alice Springs are the first four solar cities announced in Australia. Consumers will be able to purchase solar photovoltaic panels using discounted loans. The project also plans to help low-income and rental households in the community share in the benefits of the project through other cost-saving initiatives.

Geothermal energy

Main article: Geothermal energy in Australia

In Australia, geothermal energy is a natural resource which is not utilised as a form of energy. However there are known and potential locations near the centre of the country in which geothermal activity is detectable. Exploratory geothermal wells have been drilled to test for the presence of high temperature geothermal activity and such high levels were detected. As a result, projects will eventuate in the coming years and more exploration is expected at potential locations.

South Australia has been described as “Australia’s hot rock haven” and this emissions free and renewable energy form could provide an estimated 6.8% of Australia’s base load power needs by 2030. According to an estimate by the Centre for International Economics, Australia has enough geothermal energy to contribute electricity for 450 years.

There are currently 19 companies Australia-wide spending $A654 million in exploration programmes in 141 areas. In South Australia, which is expected to dominate the sector’s growth, 12 companies have already applied for 116 areas and can be expected to invest $A524 million (US$435 M) in…

M65 Military Cold Weather Field Coat ,



History

The trench coat was developed as an alternative to the heavy serge greatcoats worn by British and French soldiers in the First World War. Invention of the the trench coat is claimed by both Burberry and Aquascutum, with Aquascutuims claim dating back to the 1850’s. Thomas Burberry, the inventor of gabardine fabric, submitted a design for an army officer’s raincoat to the United Kingdom War Office in 1901.

The trench coat became an optional item of dress in the British Army, and was obtained by private purchase by officers and Warrant Officers Class I who were under no obligation to own them. No other ranks were permitted to wear them. Another optional item was the British Warm, a wool coat similar to the greatcoat that was shorter in length, also worn by British officers and Warrant Officers Class I as an optional piece.

During the First World War, the design of the trenchcoat was modified to include shoulder straps and D-rings. The shoulder straps were for the attachment of epaulettes or other rank insignia; There is a popular myth that the D-ring was for the attachment of hand grenades. The ring was originally for map cases and swords or other equipment to the belt. This latter pattern was dubbed “trench coat” by the soldiers in the front line. Many veterans returning to civilian life kept the coats that became fashionable for both men and women.

During the Second World War, officers of the United Kingdom continued to use the trench coat on the battlefield in inclement weather. Other nations also developed trench coat style jackets, notably the United States and Soviet Union, and other armies of continental Europe such as France, Germany, Holland, Poland (and are often seen in war zone photographs in the 1939-40 era, even worn by troops on the attack), although as the war progressed, in the field shorter “field jackets” became more popular, including garments such as the Denison smock used by British commandos, paratroopers, and snipers and the M1941/M1943 field jackets used by the US Army. These garments were shorter and more practical than the trench coat, and as such they allowed the wearer to be more mobile , leather racing jacket .

A typical trench coat by this period was a ten-buttoned, double-breasted long coat made with tan, khaki, beige, or black fabric. Trench coats often have cuff straps on the raglan sleeves, shoulder straps and a belt. The trench coat was typically worn as a windbreaker or as a rain jacket, and not for protection from the cold in winter or snowy conditions , discount motorcycle clothing .

Post-194 , green leather jacket .

Rick Astley wears a trench coat in the “Never Gonna Give You Up” music video , girls dress coat .

Trench coats have remained fashionable in the decades following World War II . Their original role as part of an army officers’ uniform lent the trench coat a businesslike respectability, whilst fictional heroes as diverse as Dick Tracy, Mike Hammer, The Phantom, Humphrey Bogart’s Rick Blaine from Casablanca and Peter Sellers’ Inspector Clouseau kept the coat in the public eye. In the 1960s, some mods wore trenchcoats as fashionable overcoats, as an alternative to the fishtail parka or crombie.

The Heavy metal and Goth fashion trend of black oilcloth dusters are usually referred to as trench coats. Early media reports of the Columbine High School massacre initially associated the perpetrators with members of the “Trenchcoat Mafia”, a group of outcasts who wore conspicuous black Australian oilcloth dusters. In the copycat W. R. Myers High School shooting days later, the shooter wore a trench coat. In the wake of these incidents, several schools forbade students to wear trench coats, on the grounds that the long coats could be used to conceal weapons.

Trench coats are often associated with stereotypical flashers and exhibitionists, who wear the coat in public until they “streak” naked through a public area or commit an act of exhibition.

See also

Trench coats in popular culture

Coat

Notes

^ “Heavy Metal Fashion Returns”. METALEATER. 2006-03-24. http://www.metaleater.com/news.php?action=fullnews&id=3232. Retrieved on 2008-08-01.

References

Foulkes, Nick The Trench Book 2007 Assouline

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Clothing

Materials

Cotton Fur Leather Linen Nylon Polyester Rayon Silk Spandex Wool

Tops

Blouse Crop top Dress shirt Halterneck Henley shirt Hoodie Jersey Guernsey (clothing) Polo shirt Shirt Sleeveless shirt Sweater T-shirt Tube top Turtleneck

Trousers or pants

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Dresses

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History and surveys

Africa Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Ancient world Anglo-Saxon Byzantine Clothing terminology Dress code Early Medieval Europe Formal wear Hanfu History of clothing and textiles History of Western fashion series (1100s-2000s) Sumptuary law Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Undergarments Vietnam Women wearing pants

See also

Adaptive clothing Adult diaper Bathrobe Costume Fashion Fursuit Locking clothing

Categories: CoatsHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from February 2007 | All articles lacking sources

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A sawed-off, break-open shotgun of the type commonly known as a Lupara



A short-barreled, pump-action shotgun with an 8.5″ barrel and shortened tubular magazine

A sawed-off shotgun (US) also known as a sawn-off shotgun (UK, IRL, AU, NZ; also used in US) or a short-barreled shotgun (or SBS) (U.S., legislative terminology), is a type of shotgun with a shorter gun barrel and often a shorter or deleted stock. Compared to a standard shotgun, the sawed-off shotgun has a shorter effective range, but the same destructive power. Its reduced size makes it easier to maneuver and conceal. Such a powerful and compact weapon is especially suitable for use in small spaces, such as by vehicle crews, and entry teams running through doorways (see entry shotgun). To make shotguns less concealable, many jurisdictions have a minimum legal length for shotgun barrels. Most gun makers in the U.S. do not offer sawed-off shotguns to the public, although aftermarket companies and Special Occupational Taxpayers exist to legally convert most name brand shotguns into such weapons, assuming payment of either a $200.00 or $5.00 Federal fee for transferring ownership.

As its name implies, the sawed-off shotgun is usually produced by home-made modification of a standard shotgun. In countries where handguns and pistol ammunition are rare due to legal restrictions or high price, criminals are known to convert legal or stolen hunting weapons into concealable weapons. For criminal organizations, the availability of standard hunting ammunition (by theft or transaction) is another advantage of sawed-off shotguns. However, this practice is not limited to localities where handguns are difficult to obtain. Sawed-off shotguns may be made for a number of reasons, such as the reputation they have gained through portrayal in action movies.

The term most genuinely applies to illegal weapons that were created by literally sawing off a regular shotgun’s barrel. Sawing off has the most dramatic effect when applied to double-barreled shotguns or single-shot shotguns. Pump-action or semi-automatic shotguns have a tube magazine attached to the underside of the barrel which limits the minimum barrel length to the length of the magazine tube (although this too can be shortened, with a corresponding loss in magazine capacity). Shotguns with box magazines do not lose capacity when sawn off, but they are far less common than those with tubular magazines. Shotguns manufactured with barrels under the legal minimum length, while not literally “sawed-off” shotguns, are usually regarded the same as shotguns that were made illegal through modification.

Contents

1 Legal issues

2 Police and military use

3 Barrel length and shot spread

4 Civilian usage

5 See also

6 References

//


Legal issues

Australia - a shotgun may not have its barrel shortened so as to change the category that shotgun would be classified under. Any alteration to the length of the barrel would require permission from the Chief Commissioner of Police in each state .

Canada - short-barreled, manually-operated shotguns (non-semi-automatics) are non-restricted as long as the barrel remains unmodified from the original factory length. There is no legal minimum for shotgun barrels as long as the overall length exceeds 26″ and so shotguns with barrels as short as 6.5 inches are available in Canada. If a shotgun with an 18-inch or greater barrel is reduced to below 18 inches by sawing, cutting, or replacing the barrel (by anyone other than a recognized gun manufacturer), that shotgun becomes prohibited.

UK - a shotgun sawn-off to the extent that the barrel is less than 30 cm or the overall length is less than 60 cm is deemed to be a ’short-barreled’ shotgun and thus prohibited.

United States - due to the National Firearms Act, it is illegal for a private citizen to possess a sawed-off modern smokeless powder shotgun (a barrel length less than 18 in. or 46 cm and an overall length less than 26 inches) without a tax-stamped permit from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, which requires an extensive background check and a $200.00 fee for every transfer. (Short-barreled blackpowder shotguns, in contrast, are not illegal by federal law and require no tax-stamped permit, although they may be illegal under state law.) A new tax stamp must be purchased with every transfer of a modern smokeless powder short-barrelled shotgun, and transfers must be made through a Class III Federal Firearms Licensed (FFL) dealer.

Additional restrictions may apply in many other jurisdictions. State and local laws may entirely prohibit civilian possession of short-barrelled shotguns. (These restrictions do not apply to military and police departments.) In addition, some firearm types that would normally be considered to fall into the Short Barrel Shotgun (SBS) category are not legally considered to be a SBS. A shotgun is legally defined as a shoulder mounted firearm that fires shot. Shotguns and shotgun receivers that have never had a buttstock of any type installed are not shotguns, as they cannot be shoulder mounted. Therefore, cutting one of these below the 18″ barrel and/or 26″ overall length cannot produce a SBS as the firearm was never a shotgun. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms & Explosives recognizes these firearms as being a smooth bore handgun which is an Any Other Weapon (AOW). Unlike a SBS, an AOW only carries a $5.00 tax and can be moved interstate without Federal approval. However, to maintain its AOW status, one may generally not have a buttstock (making it a SBS) or a rifled slug barrel (making it a Destructive Device (DD); a handgun with a bore over 0.5″). Both SBS and DD weapons require a $200 transfer tax and prior Federal approval to transport interstate.

Police and military use

Minimum length and barrel length restrictions only apply to civilian use; military and police departments may issue short-barreled shotguns, and major manufacturers offer special models with barrels in the range of 10 to 14 inches (25-36cm) as riot shotguns or combat shotguns for use in areas with restricted space. These are generally referred to as “entry shotguns”, as they are generally used for entering buildings, where the short, easy handling is more important than the increased ammunition capacity of a longer shotgun. Another use for very short shotguns is for use with breaching rounds, which are usually made of sintered powdered metal, although a normal buckshot or bird shot round will also work. A shotgun is used for breaching by placing the gun next to a door lock (0 to 2 inches away, 0 to 5 cm), and firing at a 45 degree downward angle through the door between the lock or latch and the door frame. The impact of the projectile(s) opens a hole through the door, removing the latch or locking bolt. Once through the door, the shot or sintered metal disperses quickly, and since it was aimed downwards, the risk of harming occupants on the other side of the breached door is minimized. Breaching guns used by police and the military may have barrels as short as 10 inches (25cm), and they often have only a pistol grip rather than a full butt stock. Some models use a special cup-like muzzle extension to further minimize the risk of debris injuring the shooter. Since only a couple of rounds are fired, any sporting shotgun with a 3 round capacity could be shortened and used as a capable breaching shotgun.

Barrel length and shot spread

Shortening the length of a shotgun barrel does not significantly affect the pattern or spread of the pellets until it is decreased under 50% of the original . The pattern is primarily impacted by the type of cartridge fired and the choke, or constriction normally found at the muzzle of a shotgun barrel. Cutting off the end of the barrel will remove the choke, which…
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A VW ball joint

In an automobile, ball joints are spherical bearings that connect the control arms to the steering knuckles. More specifically, a ball joint is a steel bearing stud and socket enclosed in a steel casing. The bearing stud is tapered and threaded. It fits into a tapered hole in the steering knuckle. A protective encasing prevents dirt from getting into the joint assembly. Motion control ball joints tend to be retained with an internal spring, which helps to prevent vibration problems in the linkage. Commonly found in automotive throttle linkages and throttle body set ups, these are also widely used on construction equipment and on the end of gas springs.

Contents

1 Theory

2 Purpose

3 Maintenance

4 See also

//


Theory

A ball joint is used for allowing three rotations. It fixes the three possible translations (X,Y,Z).

Purpose

Ball joints are the pivot between the wheels and the suspension of an automobile. Ball joints play a critical role in the safe operation of an automobile’s steering and suspension. Ball joints can also be found in most linkage systems for motion control applications, and should not be confused with spherical rod end bearings, which are a different design.Ball joints are also used in prosthetic limbs as the head of the femur. These joints are often made of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWP), to prevent material degradation.

Maintenance

Sealed ball joints do not require lubrication as they are “lubed for life” but standard ball joints must be lubed from time to time. It’s best to inspect standard ball joints once a year. Generally speaking, standard ball joints will outlive sealed ones because eventually the seal will break, causing the joint to dry out and rust. While there is no exact lifespan that can be put on a sealed ball joint, they can fail as early as 80,000miles. Signs of a failing ball joint start with a clicking or snapping sound when the wheel is turned and eventually turns into a squeaking sound at the end of a stop, when the gas pedal is used and/or also when hitting bumps. Another symptom could be ‘thud’ noises coming from front suspension when going over bumps.

If a ball joint fails, the results can be dangerous as the wheel’s angle will be unconstrained, causing loss of control. Because the tire will be at an unintended angle, the vehicle will come to an abrupt halt damaging the tires. Also, during failure, debris can damage other parts of the vehicle.

See also

Rod end bearing (heim joint)

This technology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories: Bearings | Technology stubs | Automotive part stubs
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File

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No higher resolution available.King_Wakeman_Album.jpg? (337 337 pixels, file size: 30 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)

Summary

Non-free use media rationale non-free album cover for The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table

Description

This is the cover art for the album The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table by the artist Rick Wakeman. The cover art copyright is believed to belong to the label, A&M, or the graphic artist.

Source

The cover art can or could be obtained from A&M

Article

The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table

Portion used

The entire cover: because the image is cover art, a form of product packaging, the entire image is needed to identify the product, properly convey the meaning and branding intended, and avoid tarnishing or misrepresenting the image.

Low resolution?

The copy is of sufficient resolution for commentary and identification but lower resolution than the original cover. Copies made from it will be of inferior quality, unsuitable as artwork on pirate versions or other uses that would compete with the commercial purpose of the original artwork.

Purpose of use

Main infobox. The image is used for identification in the context of critical commentary of the work for which it serves as cover art. It makes a significant contribution to the user’s understanding of the article, which could not practically be conveyed by words alone.The image is placed in the infobox at the top of the article discussing the work, to show the primary visual image associated with the work, and to help the user quickly identify the work and know they have found what they are looking for.Use for this purpose does not compete with the purposes of the original artwork, namely the artist’s providing graphic design services to music concerns and in turn marketing music to the public.

Replaceable?

As musical cover art, the image is not replaceable by free content; any other image that shows the packaging of the music would also be copyrighted, and any version that is not true to the original would be inadequate for identification or commentary.

Other information

Use of the cover art in the article complies with Wikipedia non-free content policy and fair use under United States copyright law as described above.

This is the album cover for Rick Wakeman’s “The Myths And Legends Of King Arthur And The Knights Of The Round Table” album.

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This image is of a cover of an audio recording, and the copyright for it is most likely owned by either the publisher of the work or the artist(s) which produced the recording or cover artwork in question. It is believed that the use of low-resolution images of such covers

solely to illustrate the audio recording in question,

on the English-language Wikipedia, hosted on servers in the United States by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation,

qualifies as fair use under United States copyright law. Any other uses of this image, on Wikipedia or elsewhere, may be copyright infringement. See Wikipedia:Non-free content for more information.To the uploader: please add a detailed fair use rationale for each use, as described on Wikipedia:Non-free use rationale guideline, as well as the source of the work and copyright information. For an example fair use rationale, see here.

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Dark roasted coffee beans



Light roasted coffee beans

Roasting coffee transforms the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans into roasted coffee products. The roasting process is what produces the characteristic flavor of coffee by causing the green coffee beans to expand and to change in color, taste, smell, and density. Unroasted beans contain similar acids, protein, and caffeine as those that have been roasted, but lack the taste. It takes heat to speed up the Maillard and other chemical reactions that develop and enhance the flavour.

As green coffee is more stable than roasted, the roasting process tends to take place close to where it will be consumed. This reduces the time that roasted coffee spends in distribution, helping to maximize its shelf life. The vast majority of coffee is roasted commercially on a large scale, but some coffee drinkers roast coffee themselves in order to have more control over the freshness and flavour profile of the beans.

Contents

1 Process

2 Packaging

3 Darkness

4 Home roasting

5 Emissions and control

6 Gallery

7 See also

8 Notes and references

//


Process

The coffee roasting process consists essentially of sorting, roasting, cooling, and packaging operations but can also include grinding in larger scale roasting houses. In larger operations, bags of green coffee beans are hand or machine-opened, dumped into a hopper, and screened to remove debris. The green beans are then weighed and transferred by belt or pneumatic conveyor to storage hoppers. From the storage hoppers, the green beans are conveyed to the roaster. Roasters typically operate at temperatures between 370 and 540 (188 and 282 ), and the beans are roasted for a period of time ranging from 12 to 30 minutes. Roasters are typically horizontal rotating drums that are heated from below and tumble the green coffee beans in a current of hot gases. The heat source can be supplied by natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity or even wood. These roasters can operate in either batch or continuous modes and can be indirect- or direct-fired.

An alternate to the drum coffee roaster was developed by Michael Sivetz for which he was given US patent 3,964,175 on June 22, 1976. It involves roasting the coffee beans while they are levitated on a cushion of heated air. The process is called a fluidized bed and is commonly used in other food processing applications.

Many people who roast coffee prefer to follow a “recipe”, or roast profile, when bringing out the flavour characteristics they wish to highlight. Any number of factors may help a person determine the best profile to use, such as the coffee’s origin, varietal, processing method or desired flavour characteristics. A roast profile can be presented as a graph showing time on one axis and temperature on the other, which can be recorded manually or using computer software and data loggers linked to temperature probes inside various parts of the roaster.

Indirect-fired roasters are roasters in which the burner flame does not contact the coffee beans, although the combustion gases from the burner do contact the beans. Direct-fired roasters contact the beans with the burner flame and the combustion gases. At the end of the roasting cycle, the roasted beans are cooled using a vacuum system. Roasted coffee beans are also cooled using fine water mist, this method is known as “quenching” and is considered inferior to air cooling as the water soaks the fresh beans with moisture and oxygen particles sending it stale almost instantly. Following roasting, the beans are cooled and stabilized. This stabilization process is called de-gassing. Following de-gassing, the roasted beans are packaged, usually in light resistant foil bags fitted with small one-way valves to allow gasses to escape while protecting the beans from moisture and oxygen. Roasted whole beans can be considered fresh for up to one month. Once coffee is ground it is best used immediately.

To watch a fully automated electric coffee roaster in action please click. A variety of portable commercial coffee roasters and specifications can be viewed at

Packaging

Extending the useful life of roasted coffee relies on maintaining an optimum environment for the beans. The first large scale preservation technique was vacuum packing. However, because coffee emits CO2 after roasting, coffee to be vacuum packed must be allowed to de-gas for several days before it is sealed. To allow more immediate packaging, pressurized canisters or foil-lined bags with pressure-relief valves can be used.

Darkness

As the bean absorbs heat, the color shifts to yellow and then to varying shades of brown. During the later stages of roasting, oils appear on the surface of the bean, making it shiny. The roast will continue to darken until it is removed from the heat source.

At lighter roasts, the bean will exhibit more of its “origin flavor” - the flavors created in the bean by the soil and weather conditions in the location where it was grown. Coffee beans from famous regions like Java, Kenya, Hawaiian Kona, and Jamaican Blue Mountain are usually roasted lightly so their signature characteristics dominate the flavor. As the beans darken to a deep brown, the origin flavors of the bean are eclipsed by the flavors created by the roasting process itself. At darker roasts, the “roast flavor” is so dominant that it can be difficult to distinguish the origin of the beans used in the roast.

A note on flavor: Describing the tastes of different roasts is as subjective as putting a wine into words. In both cases there no substitute for your own personal taste. As a guide, if you can see the oil on the beans as in the image above, you are more likely to taste the roasting flavours, than the individual characteristics of the beans.

Roast level

Notes

Surface

Flavor

Light

Cinnamon roast, half city, New England

After several minutes the beans op or “crack” and visibly expand in size, this stage is called first crack. American mass-market roasters typically stop here.

Dry

Lighter-bodied, higher acidity, no obvious roast flavour

Medium

Full city, American, regular, breakfast, brown

After a few short minutes the beans reach this roast, which U.S. specialty sellers tend to prefer.

Dry

Sweeter than light roast; more body exhibiting more balance in acid, aroma, and complexity

Full Roast

High, Viennese, Italian Espresso, Continental

After a few more minutes the beans begin popping again, and oils rise to the surface. This is called second crack. Roasters from the U.S. Northwest generally remove the beans at this point.

Slightly shiny

Somewhat spicy; complexity is traded for heavier body/mouth-feel, aromas and flavours of roast become clearly evident

Double Roast

French

After a few more minutes or so the beans begin to smoke. The bean sugars begin to carbonize.

Very oily

Smokey-sweet; light bodied, but quite intense. None of the inherent flavors of the bean are recognisable.



Grades of coffee roasting; from left: unroasted (or “green”), light, cinnamon, medium, high, city, full city, Italian, and French.

Home roasting

Main article: Home roasting coffee

Home roasting is the process of roasting small batches of green coffee beans for personal consumption. Roasting coffee in the home is something that has been practiced for centuries, and has included methods such as heating over fire coals, roasting in cast iron pans, and rotating iron drums over a fire or coal bed. Computerized drum roasters are available which simplify home roasting and some home roasters simply roast in an oven or in air popcorn poppers.

Up until the 20th…
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Bulk Vending is the sale of unsorted confections, nuts, gumballs, toys and novelties (in capsules) selected at random and dispensed generally through non-electrically operated vending machines. Bulk vending is a separate segment of the vending industry from full line vending i.e., the snack and soda vending industries and involves different products and strategies. Bulk vending represents less than 1% of the total vending industry.

Contents

1 History

2 From the consumer’s perspective

3 From the vendor’s perspective

3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of bulk vending

3.1.1 Advantages of bulk vending

3.1.2 Disadvantages of bulk vending

3.2 Business opportunities

3.3 Machinery

3.3.1 General considerations

3.3.2 Machine types

3.3.2.1 Separate head machines

3.3.2.2 Triple machines

3.3.3 Parts

3.4 Products

3.5 Locations

3.6 The vending community

4 References

//


History

Bulk vending dates back at least to the late 19th century. Vending machines were widely used in Europe before they became popular in the United States. In the early 1880s, the first commercial coin operated vender was introduced in London and stocked with postcards. In 1888, the Thomas Adams Gum Co. introduced bulk venders to America, using the machines to sell Tutti frutti gum on elevated subway platforms in New York City. In 1897, the Pulver Manufacturing Company added animated figures to its gum machines. In 1907, the round candy coated gumball, a staple product in modern vending machines, was introduced. In 1909, Emerson A. Bolen formed the Northwestern Novelty Company, selling the Yankee, a penny matchstick vending machine; Bolen’s company is now one of the most prominent bulk vending machine manufacturers. In 1913, Ford Mason leased 102 machines and placed them in stores and shops of communities in western New York State; he would eventually found the Ford Gum & Machine Company, an empire of over 500,000 vending machines. In 1948, Oak Manufacturing opened its doors; it would become one of the largest equipment manufacturers in the industry. In 1949, Roger C. Folz purchased his first vending machine; Folz Vending was the largest operator of bulk vending equipment in the United States, owning and operating over 150,000 machines nationwide at their peak.

In 1950, the United States Treasury Department attempted to impose gambling excise taxes on bulk vendors on the grounds that there was no way for consumers to know for sure which gumball or other product the machine would dispense. For a short time, manufacturers installed viewfinders in bulk vending machines to display the next item to be vended. Vendors organized to found the National Bulk Vendors Association (NBVA), which successfully lobbied against the taxes, arguing that the items vended were of approximate or equivalent value. The NBVA has since lobbied on behalf of bulk vendors on a variety of issues; for instance, it joined the Coin Coalition which pushed for elimination of the U.S. one dollar bill in favor of the United States dollar coin.

From the consumer’s perspective

Operation of bulk vending equipment is usually fairly straightforward for the consumer, involving placing the appropriate coin or coins in the machine and turning a knob or pulling a lever. If candy in a machine is low, however, and it appears unevenly distributed, the customer may wish to rock or whack the machine in order to knock some candy into the candy wheel, which is located in the bottom of the canister in the center. Depending on the design of the machine, though which usually involves a wheel making a one-third turn with every vend it may already be too late to ensure that the next vend bears fruit. A distinguishing feature of bulk vending is that the items are dispensed at random, so it is usually impossible to choose which item comes out of the machine next. A child trying to get a complete set of Britney Spears photographs, for instance, may end up with several duplicates; hence, the introduction of “trading cards” and similarly-themed products, with the idea that consumers will trade the duplicates with one another.

From the vendor’s perspective

Advantages and disadvantages of bulk vending

Bulk vending is a hands-on business requiring research and planning, as well as sales ability and investment of time, to be successful. Many of the same considerations that apply to other small businesses, such as accounting, income taxation, liability insurance, and so on, also apply to bulk vending. On the other hand, some aspects, such as fixed costs and required seed money, are quite different from most start-ups.

Advantages of bulk vending

The gross margins in the bulk candy business can be quite high gumballs, for instance, can be purchased in bulk for 2 cents apiece and sold for 25 cents. In addition,…(and so on)
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