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Vitrified Tiles - White Tiles ,



Sol may be:

the Latin (also Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, Catalan, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian) name for the Sun

the Roman Sun god, see Sol (mythology)

Sol Invictus

from the Latin, in planetary astronomy and science fictio , solid bamboo flooring .

the Solar syste , mosaic bathroom tile .

the Sun

A solar day on Mars or a solar day on any other planet circling the Sun

the Old Norse for “Sun”, see Sl (Sun)

the Old Norse name of the Sowilo rune

the name of various currencies

The sol (later sou), a coin used in France during the 13th18th century, derived from the Roman solidus

The French sol, in use in the Ancien Regime

The Peruvian sol, used in Peru between 1863 and 1985

The Peruvian nuevo sol, named after the earlier sol, introduced in 1991

The SOL Project, a complementary currency under development in France

in music, G (musical note), also known as Sol, the fifth note of the solfege music scale

various Polish placenames; see Sl

as an abbreviation

Sol., a citation abbreviation for Daniel Solander, a standard botanical author

SOL, California State Prison, Solano in the USA

Klondike solitaire, card game (named Sol as part of the GNOME desktop environment and SOL.EXE on Microsoft Windows)

Solution

The Social Liberals (Austria)

Sol (colloid), suspensions of solid particles in a liquid, liquid form of Sol-gel

Sol-gel, colloidal suspension that is gelled to form a solid

SOL as an acronym

Satellite of Love, fictional spaceship in the comedy TV series Mystery Science Theater 3000

Satellite Orbital Laser, in the manga and anime Akira

Scars of Life, an alternative rock band from Florida, United States

School of Law

School of Lock!, Japan Radio Program

Second Order Logic

Secure Operations Language

Senator On-Line, a registered Australian political party

Serial over LAN

Service d’ordre lgionnaire, collaborationist militia in Vichy France

The Shadows of Luclin, expansion to the Everquest computer game

Ship of the Line

Shit Out of Luck

Simple Object Language, ancestor of Lua programming language

Skilled Occupation List, skilled occupations acceptable for migration to Australia

Sleep Onset Latency

Society for Organizational Learning

Speed of light

Stadium of Light, home of Sunderland A.F.C.

Standard of living, possessions and material wealth of a population

Standards of Learning, set of standards Virginia students must meet before graduation

Statue of Liberty

Statute of limitations, legal term

Straight Outta Lynwood, “Weird Al” Yankovic’s 12th album

Stratfordkahukura Line, secondary railway line in New Zealand

as a given name

Sol Campbell, a football player

Sol Lesser, a film producer

Solomon “Sol” Trujillo, CEO of Telstra

Sol Rosenberg, Louisiana businessman and Dachau concentration camp survivor

Sol Stern, a senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute

Sol Wachtler, former Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals

A common nickname for the first name “Solomon”.

Henk G. Sol, a Dutch computer scientist

brands, titles and popular culture

Sol Lneas Areas, an airline in Argentina.

Sol (beer), (Disambiguation)

Sol (newspaper), a weekly newspaper published in Portugal

Sol-20, computer of Processor Technology

Sonoma County Sol, an American soccer team

Sl (band), a Danish one-man doom metal band

Sol, an album from the German band Ougenweide

Sol, an online multiplayer game

Sol, a daily newspaper published in Turkey

Sol, a name used for warp drive in some non-English versions of the Star Trek television series

Sol, an artifact from The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess

Sol, a mysterious rogue in the Warriors novels by Erin Hunter

Sol Emeralds, mirrors of the Chaos Emeralds in the Sonic the Hedgehog series

SOL, ‘Synchronous Orbit Laser’, depicted in the Japanese animated film Akira_(film)

Sol Star, a character from the HBO television series Deadwood

Sol (comedian), a fictional character created by Marc Favreau

Sol Badguy, a bounty hunter character of the Guilty Gear game series

Sol Rosenberg, a fictional character created by prank callers the Jerky Boys

See also

Sole

Sl

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories: Disambiguation pagesHidden categories: All disambiguation pages | All article disambiguation pages

Stearate Acid and Stearate salts ,



Types of refineries

Different types of refineries are as follows:

oil refinery, which converts crude oil into high-octane motor fuel (gasoline/petrol), diesel oil, liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), jet aircraft fuel, kerosene, heating fuel oils, lubricating oils, asphalt and petroleum coke;

sugar refinery, which converts sugar cane and sugar beets into crystallized sugar and sugar syrups;

natural gas processing plant, which purifies and converts raw natural gas into residential, commercial and industrial fuel gas, and also recovers natural gas liquids (NGL) such as ethane, propane, butanes and pentanes , iron ore brazil .

salt refinery, which cleans salt (NaCl), produced by the solar evaporation of sea water, followed by washing and re-crystallization , flame oil .

metal refineries refining metals such as alumina, copper, gold, lead, nickel, silver, uranium, and zinc; an , hair care oil .

vegetable oil refiner , garlic flakes .

An oil refinery

A typical oil refinery

Main article: Oil refinery

The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery depicting various unit processes and the flow of intermediate products between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final products. The diagram depicts only one of the hundreds of different configurations. It does not include any of the usual facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products.

Schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery

A typical natural gas processing plant

A natural gas processing plant

Main article: Natural gas processing

The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. It shows various unit processes converting raw natural gas into gas pipelined to end users.

The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane, and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline (denoted as pentanes +).

Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant

Sugar refining

Harvested sugar cane ready for processing.

Main article: Sugarcane#Processing

Sugar is generally produced from sugarcane or sugar beets. However, the global production of sugar from sugarcane is at least twice the production from sugar beets. Therefore, this section focuses on sugar from sugarcane.

Milling

Sugarcane is traditionally refined into sugar in two stages. In the first stage, raw sugar is produced by the milling of freshly harvested sugarcane. In a sugar mill, sugarcane is washed, chopped, and shredded by revolving knives. The shredded cane is mixed with water and crushed. The juices (containing 10-15 percent sucrose) are collected and mixed with lime to adjust pH to 7, to prevent decay into glucose and fructose and precipitate impurities. The lime and other suspended solids are settled out, and the clarified juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup with about 60 weight percent sucrose. The syrup is further concentrated under vacuum until it becomes supersaturated, and then seeded with crystalline sugar. Upon cooling, sugar crystallizes out of the syrup. Centrifuginging then separates the sugar from the remaining liquid (molasses). Raw sugar has a yellow to brown color. To produce a white sugar, sulfur dioxide is bubbled through the cane juice before evaporation so as to bleach color-forming impurities into colourless ones. Sugar bleached white by this means is called mill white, plantation white, and crystal sugar. It is the form of sugar most often consumed in the sugarcane-producing countries.

The fibrous solids, called bagasse, remaining after the crushing of the shredded sugarcane, are burned for fuel, which helps a sugar mill to become self-sufficient in energy. Any excess bagasse can be used for animal feed, to produce paper, or burned to generate electricity for the local power grid.

Refining

Sugar refinery in Arabi, Louisiana, United States

The second stage is often executed in heavy sugar-consuming regions such as North America, Europe, and Japan. In the second stage, white sugar is produced that is more than 99 percent pure sucrose. In such refineries, raw sugar is further purified. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and centrifuged to wash away the outer coating of the raw sugar crystals, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup (about 70 percent by weight solids), which is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide that combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they are skimmed off.

After any remaining solids are filtered out, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through a bed of activated carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized under vacuum to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. To produce granulated sugar, in which the individual sugar grains do not clump together, sugar must be dried. Drying is accomplished first by drying the sugar in a hot rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days.

Equipment in refineries

A refinery consists of different types of equipment such as:

centrifuges

compressors

cooling towers

crushers

crystallizers

distillation towers and other pressure vessels

electric power generators, transformers and electric motors

electrolysis cells

evaporators

filters

furnaces

gas flares

mixers and blenders

monitoring and control systems

piping and valves

pumps

steam generators

steam turbines and gas turbines

storage tanks

wastewater treatment

See also

Alumina

Bagasse

Bayer process and Hall-Hroult process (used to produce aluminium from bauxite ore)

Falconbridge Ltd. (large mining and metals refining company)

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

Natural gas

Oil refinery

Petroleum

Sugar cane

Sugar beet

References

^ Gary, J.H. and Handwerk, G.E. (1984). Petroleum Refining Technology and Economics (2nd Edition ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc. ISBN 0-8247-html Refinery flowchart] from Universal Oil Products’ website.

^ An example flowchart of fractions from crude oil at a refinery

^ Natural Gas Processing: The Crucial Link Between Natural Gas Production and Its Transportation to Market

^ Example Gas Plant

^ From Purification to Liquefaction Gas Processing

^ Feed-Gas Treatment Design for the Pearl GTL Project

^ Benefits of integrating NGL extraction and LNG liquefaction

External links

Complete, detailed oil refinery description

Processing natural gas

Aluminum production process flow sheets

World LP Gas Association

National Propane Gas Association, USA

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Overview

Making sugar

Sugar refining

Searchable United States Refinery Map

Interactive map of UK refineries

Categories: Chemical engineering | Oil refineries | Crops

White Cane Sugar ,



History

Bulk vending dates back at least to the late 19th century. Vending machines were widely used in Europe before they became popular in the United States. In the early 1880s, the first commercial coin operated vender was introduced in London and stocked with postcards. In 1888, the Thomas Adams Gum Co. introduced bulk venders to America, using the machines to sell Tutti frutti gum on elevated subway platforms in New York City. In 1897, the Pulver Manufacturing Company added animated figures to its gum machines. In 1907, the round candy coated gumball, a staple product in modern vending machines, was introduced. In 1909, Emerson A. Bolen formed the Northwestern Novelty Company, selling the Yankee, a penny matchstick vending machine; Bolen’s company is now one of the most prominent bulk vending machine manufacturers. In 1913, Ford Mason leased 102 machines and placed them in stores and shops of communities in western New York State; he would eventually found the Ford Gum & Machine Company, an empire of over 500,000 vending machines. In 1948, Oak Manufacturing opened its doors; it would become one of the largest equipment manufacturers in the industry. In 1949, Roger C. Folz purchased his first vending machine; Folz Vending was the largest operator of bulk vending equipment in the United States, owning and operating over 150,000 machines nationwide at their peak.

In 1950, the United States Treasury Department attempted to impose gambling excise taxes on bulk vendors on the grounds that there was no way for consumers to know for sure which gumball or other product the machine would dispense. For a short time, manufacturers installed viewfinders in bulk vending machines to display the next item to be vended. Vendors organized to found the National Bulk Vendors Association (NBVA), which successfully lobbied against the taxes, arguing that the items vended were of approximate or equivalent value. The NBVA has since lobbied on behalf of bulk vendors on a variety of issues; for instance, it joined the Coin Coalition which pushed for elimination of the U.S. one dollar bill in favor of the United States dollar coin.

From the consumer’s perspective

Operation of bulk vending equipment is usually fairly straightforward for the consumer, involving placing the appropriate coin or coins in the machine and turning a knob or pulling a lever. If candy in a machine is low, however, and it appears unevenly distributed, the customer may wish to rock or whack the machine in order to knock some candy into the candy wheel, which is located in the bottom of the canister in the center. Depending on the design of the machine, though which usually involves a wheel making a one-third turn with every vend it may already be too late to ensure that the next vend bears fruit. A distinguishing feature of bulk vending is that the items are dispensed at random, so it is usually impossible to choose which item comes out of the machine next. A child trying to get a complete set of Britney Spears photographs, for instance, may end up with several duplicates; hence, the introduction of “trading cards” and similarly-themed products, with the idea that consumers will trade the duplicates with one another , gardenia white .

From the vendor’s perspectiv , sugar in brazil .

Advantages and disadvantages of bulk vendin , flavored gum .

Bulk vending is a hands-on business requiring research and planning, as well as sales ability and investment of time, to be successful. Many of the same considerations that apply to other small businesses, such as accounting, income taxation, liability insurance, and so on, also apply to bulk vending. On the other hand, some aspects, such as fixed costs and required seed money, are quite different from most start-ups , and massage oil .

Advantages of bulk vending

The gross margins in the bulk candy business can be quite high gumballs, for instance, can be purchased in bulk for 2 cents apiece and sold for 25 cents. In addition, the machines are typically inexpensive compared to soda or snack machines. Both the machines and product are relatively portable, and the machines are easier to service than in other types of vending. In many states, bulk vendors are exempt from sales tax. Bulk vending may be a practical choice for an individual simultaneously working a full time job, because many venues that host bulk vending machines, such as retailers and restaurants, are open on weekends and during evening hours.

Disadvantages of bulk vending

Initially, the cost of insurance for a beginning operation may be cost prohibitive. Consequently, many beginning operators do not carry liability insurance on their machines. Complicating the situation is that there are limited companies which offer insurance for Bulk Vendors.

The business is susceptible to inflation because product costs rise higher than prices customers are willing to pay. Many bulk candy vending mechanisms are not equipped to accommodate price increases, unlike electronic machines. Locations often do not see a compelling need to have a bulk candy machine. Moreover, because locations know the machines are easily portable, it is not uncommon for bulk vendors to get kicked out of a location.

Vendors generally report that about 1-4% of their machines disappear annually, a problem exacerbated by the fact that machines are usually located close to store entrances, where they are easy to steal. Locations inside existing businesses can be in peril if the business goes bankrupt or evicted from rented premises. Machines have been known to be seized or liquidated by the host businesses’ creditors, before the rightful owner has a chance to retrieve them.

Business opportunities

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A U-Turn Terminator bulk vendor.

U-Turn Vending, for instance, sells an unusual machine that rotates on its base so that customers can choose between four, eight, or twelve selections. Many of the biz-ops still in existence operate on the margins of legality, escaping liability through carefully-worded contracts that make it difficult for customers to cash in on money-back guarantees. State and federal government agencies have issued statements warning of business opportunity scams in the bulk vending industry.

The majority of professional vendors do not use U-Turns as they are disproportionately expensive, are comparably difficult to service, the plastic mechanisms have more problems than metal ones, and replacement parts are also disproportionately expensive when compared to those of Oak Manufacturing Co. or the Northwestern Corp. Advice to the beginner in this industry, as in most, is to imitate those successful operators, their choice of machines, etc.

The FTC website lists complaints filed by the U.S. Government against scores of vending biz-ops. Many of them, remain in business and have large advertising budgets. The high profit margins these companies earn from selling overpriced equipment enables them to pay the fines and continue operating.

Machinery

General considerations

Vendors have a wide variety of machines to choose from. The selection of a machine is important because it can affect sales, time spent servicing the machine, willingness of locations to allow placement of the machine, and a variety of other factors affecting overall profits. Like a car, once a vending machine is placed in service, its resale value drops dramatically. This is especially true for machines that were overpriced to begin with.

Northwestern Corporation (established 1909) and Oak Manufacturing (established 1948) are generally regarded in the vending community as companies that sell high-quality bulk candy machines.

The ideal color of the machine may depend on the clientele. In retail locations frequented by children, an eye-catching red or yellow may be best. Chinese restaurants, for instance, typically favor red. In offices where adults are the customers, a more subdued blue, grey, silver, or black may be better. If a location has a color coordination, it may be good to keep with the color coordination.

Stands mostly come in two colors, black and chrome. Chrome has a tendency to rust when exposed to moisture from mopped floors, humidity, etc. Black stands suffer from the same problems, but can be repainted with inexpensive black gloss spray paint more cheaply than chrome stands can be rechromed.

Sticker adhesive can be removed from machines by applying lighter fluid and then rinsing with dish soap. To find out what cleaners work best on a particular machine, it may be good to keep a machine in the house and try everything on it to see what works. There are products that can remove scratches from canisters, for instance.

Machine types

The best choice of machine type largely depends on location. A gimmicky machine, such as one that has flashing lights following a gumball down a spiral, is better suited to shopping malls and other locations with many new customers visiting who are unfamiliar with the machine (and thus have not become jaded about it). For most locations, a simple single- or double-head stand is sufficient.[citation needed] In some high-traffic locations, a four selection machine is the best but can cause product to go stale in a location with fewer…

Authentic Branded Lady Handbags(New Style) ,

jacket is a type of sleeved hip- or waist-length garment for the upper body. For clothing older than the mid-nineteenth century, a distinction is often maintained with a coat, but in many instances the terms are now interchangeable. A jacket is generally shorter, ending just below the waist, and often lighter. Some jackets are fashionable, while others serve as protective clothing.

The term comes from the French jaquette, which means either a man’s morning coat or the jacket of a lady’s suit.

List of jackets

Arctic jacket, or anorak (in the United Kingdom) or parka (in the United States), a hooded jacket for very cold climates

Ball jacket, often specified as a baseball jacket or football jacket, a casual jacket with knitted cuffs, collar, and waistband and a zippered front

Blaze , hooded winter coat .

Bolero, a very short jacket for women, originally worn by matador , battery heated jacket .

Car coat the main distinguishing features of a car coat are the AAA-line style, flat front, and mid thigh lengt , cheap north face jackets .

Chef’s jacke , white trench coat .

Donkey jacket

Doublet (clothing)

Down jacket, a quilted jacket filled with down feathers

Duster coat

Eisenhower jacket, a waist-length, fitted, military-inspired jacket with a waistband based on the World War II British Army’s Battle Dress jacket introduced by General Dwight Eisenhower

Eton jacket, similar to a tailcoat but cut off just below the waist, worn as the school uniform of boys under 5′4″ at Eton College until 1976 and at many other English schools, particularly choir schools

Field Jacket, a jacket that is worn by soldiers on the battlefield or doing duties in cold weather. The field jacket came about during World War 2 with the US Army introducing the M-1941 and the M-1943 field jacket and issued the jacket to their troops. The most well-known and the most popular type of military field jacket that is on the market today is the M-1965 or M-65 field jacket which came into US military service in 1965

Flak jacket

Fleece jacket, a casual jacket made of synthetic wool such as Polar Fleece

Flight jacket, also known as a bomber jacket

Jeans jacket or denim jacket, a jacket falling slightly below the waist, usually of denim, with buttoned band cuffs like a shirt and a waistband that can be adjusted by means of buttons. Also called Levi’s jacket (see Levi’s)

Jerkin

Kilt jacket, one of several styles of traditional Scottish jacket worn with the kilt, including the Argyll jacket, the Prince Charlie jacket, and a type of tweed jacket

Lab coat, a knee-length simple coat, almost always white, worn by scientists, students and researchers in laboratories

Leather jacket

Life jacket

Manteau, a loose cloak or mantle, often used to refer to the long overcoats worn by women in Iran

Medical coat, similar to lab coat, worn by physicians (also termed white coat)

Mess jacket, a nearly waist-length fitted formal coat worn as full-dress military uniform evening wear, especially in the British Army. Often brightly coloured and trimmed.

Motorcycle jacket, a leather jacket, usually black, worn by motorcycle riders; originally to mid-thigh, now usually to a fitted waist

Nehru jacket

Pea coat, a heavy wool double-breasted hip-length jacket worn by sailors, or a coat styled like this

Rain jacket, a short rain coat

Raincoat, a water-resistant or water proof coat, often belted

Reefing jacket or reefer, a type of pea coat

Riding jacket, part of a riding habit

Rocker jacket, also known as a motorcycle jacket

Satin jacket, a type of ball jacket made of satin and popular in the 1950s

Smoking jacket

Spencer jacket, a high-waisted jacket dating to the Regency period

Sportcoat (US) or Sports jacket (UK), a tailored jacket, similar in cut to a suit coat but more utilitarian, originally casual wear for hunting, riding, and other outdoor sports; specific types include a shooting jacket and hacking jacket

Sports jacket, also known as a sports coat

Straitjacket

Suit jacket

Track jacket, also known as a speed jacket

Varsity jacket, also known as a letter jacket or letterman jacket

Walking coat, a women’s tailored coat of about knee-length, generally to be worn over trousers

Mackintosh

Windbreaker (US, Japan) or windcheater (UK)

7/8 coat, a women’s dress coat several inches shorter than the currently fashionable skirt length

References

^ Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1971

^ The Eton Suit

This clothing-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

v d e

Clothing

Materials

Cotton Fur Leather Linen Nylon Polyester Rayon Silk Spandex Wool

Tops

Blouse Crop top Dress shirt Halterneck Henley shirt Hoodie Jersey Guernsey (clothing) Polo shirt Shirt Sleeveless shirt Sweater T-shirt Tube top Turtleneck

Trousers or pants

Bell-bottoms Bermuda shorts Bondage pants Boxer shorts Capri pants Cargo pants Culottes Cycling shorts Dress pants Jeans Jodhpurs Overall Parachute pants Shorts Sweatpants Windpants

Skirts

Ballerina skirt Hobble skirt Jean skirt Job skirt Leather skirt Kilt Pencil skirt Poodle skirt Prairie skirt Miniskirt Microskirt Slip Skort Train

Dresses

Ball gown Cocktail dress Evening gown Gown Jumper dress Little black dress Petticoat Sari Sundress Tea gown Wedding dress

Suits and uniforms

Academic dress Afrocentric suit Black tie Clerical clothing Court dress Gymslip Jumpsuit Lab coat Mao suit Morning dress Pantsuit Red Sea rig Scrubs Stroller Tang suit Tuxedo White tie

Outerwear

Abaya Academic gown Anorak Apron Blazer Cloak Coat Duffle coat Frock coat Jacket Greatcoat Hoodie Men’s undergarments Opera coat Overcoat Pea coat Poncho Raincoat Redingote Robe Shawl Shrug Ski suit Sleeved blanket Top coat Trench coat Vest Waistcoat Windbreaker

Underwear

Boxer briefs Boxer shorts Brassiere Briefs Compression shorts Corselet Corset Knickers Lingerie Long underwear Panties Teddy Trunks Undershirt

Accessories

Belly chain Belt Bow tie Chaps Earring Gaiters Gloves Handbag Leg warmer Leggings Necklace Necktie Scarf Stocking Sunglasses Suspenders Tights

Footwear

Athletic shoe Boot Dress shoe Hosiery Pump Sandal Shoe Slipper Sock

Headwear

Balaclava Cap Fascinator Hat Headband Helmet Hijab Hood Mantilla Niqab Sombrero Turban Ushanka Veil

Nightwear

Babydoll Blanket sleeper Negligee Nightcap Nightgown Nightshirt Peignoir Pajamas

Clothing parts

Back closure Buckle Button Buttonhole Collar Cuff Elastic Fly Hemline Hook-and-eye Lapel Neckline Pocket Shoulder pad Shoulder strap Sleeve Snap Strap Velcro Waistline Zipper

National costume

Abaya Aboyne dress o b ba o di o t thn Barong Tagalog Baro’t saya Bunad Cheongsam Dashiki Deel Dhoti Dirndl Djellaba Gho & Kira Hanbok Han Chinese clothing Jellabiya Jilbb Kebaya Kente cloth Kilt Kimono Lederhosen Sampot Sarafan Sari Sarong Scottish dress

Historical garments

Banyan Bedgown Bodice Braccae Breeches Breeching Brunswick Chemise Chiton Chlamys Doublet Exomis Farthingale Frock Himation Hose Houppelande Jerkin Justacorps Palla Peplos Polonaise Smock-frock Stola Toga Tunic

History and surveys

Africa Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Ancient world Anglo-Saxon Byzantine Clothing terminology Dress code Early Medieval Europe Formal wear Hanfu History of clothing and textiles History of Western fashion series (1100s-2000s) Sumptuary law Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Undergarments Vietnam Women wearing pants

See also

Adaptive clothing Adult diaper Bathrobe Costume Fashion Fursuit Locking clothing

Categories: Clothing stubs | Coats | Jackets

Kenwood In-Dash MP3/CD/DVD Player (KVT-719DVD) ,



Conversation(s) with Other Women

Theatrical Poster

Directed by

Hans Canosa

Produced by

Ram BergmanBill McCutchenKerry Barden

Written by

Gabrielle Zevin

Starring

Aaron EckhartHelena Bonham CarterErik EidemNora ZehetnerOlivia Wilde

Music by

Starr ParodiJeff Eden Fair

Cinematography

Steve Yedlin

Release date(s)

August 11, 2006

Running time

84 min.

Country

USA

Budget

$450,000 (estimated)

Gross revenue

$964,235

Conversation(s) with Other Women is a 2005 film directed by Hans Canosa, written by Gabrielle Zevin and starring Aaron Eckhart and Helena Bonham Carter.

The film, an independent production budgeted at $450,000, was sold for distribution in more than 30 countries.

Contents

1 Plot

2 Release information

2.1 Theatrical release

2.2 DVD release

3 Awards

4 Production

5 Post-production

6 Soundtrack

7 Split screen

8 References

9 External links

//


Plot

A “nameless” man (Eckhart) offers a “nameless” bridesmaid (Bonham Carter) a glass of champagne at the start of a wedding reception. She responds that she doesn’t drink anymore but still enjoys a cigarette. They begin to flirt, and a conversation begins. Among other things, the couple discuss past relationships, their mutual proximity to age 40, the differences between lawyers and doctors. The man talks about certain memories as if they were common to the two of them.

Despite revelations of the nameless man’s current girlfriend, 22-year-old Sarah the dancer, and the nameless woman’s husband, 45-year-old Jeffrey the cardiologist, the conversation heats up and they end up in the bridesmaid’s hotel room, where the close encounter gets even closer. The woman reminds the man that her plane, traveling back to London, leaves at 6:00 a.m. Their mutual memories and disclosures continue to indicate that these two have met before.

The two leave the hotel together, but enter separate taxicabs. The film ends in ambiguity, as the man and woman, apparently in different places but sharing one frame, speculate with their driver(s) on the future and the difficulty of being happy.

Release information

Theatrical release

Conversations, Canosa’s directorial debut, premiered at the 2005 Telluride Film Festival. The film subsequently played at the Tokyo International Film Festival, Seminci Valladolid International Film Festival, the US Comedy Arts Festival, South by Southwest Film Festival, Seattle International Film Festival, Los Angeles Film Festival, Rio de Janeiro International Film Festival, Hamburg Film Festival, S?o Paulo International Film Festival, and the Muestra Internacional de Cine.

The film’s international theatrical premiere was on June 7, 2006 in France. Released by distributor MK2 Diffusion under the title Conversation(s) avec une Femme, the film played theatrically for five months to both box office success and critical acclaim.

Released on August 11, 2006 in the United States by Fabrication Films, the film played in fourteen cities, garnering modest theatrical box office and critical acclaim.

DVD release

The original split-screen Region 1 DVD version was released in the United States on January 9, 2007 by Arts Alliance America. A single frame, full screen DVD version, created for 4×3 broadcast television release, was subsequently released on October 9, 2007. The single frame cut only retains three split-screen sequences: the opening titles, the sex scene, and the closing taxicab sequence.

International DVD releases include MK2 in France, Shochiku in Japan, Revelation Films in the United Kingdom, TVA Films in Canada, Dendy Films in Australia, Filmes Unimundos in Portugal, D Productions in Turkey, Civite Films in Spain, Global in Russia, J-Bics in Thailand, Paradiso Home Entertainment in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, Cathay-Keris Films in Singapore and Malaysia, Atlantic Film in Sweden, NoShame Films in Italy, Prooptiki Bulgaria in Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and Slovenia, Prooptiki in Greece, Shapira Films in Israel, Solopan in Poland, VideoFilmes in Brazil, and With Cinema in South Korea.

Awards

Result

Award

Recipient

Festival/Ceremony

Year

Won

Special Jury Prize

Hans Canosa

Tokyo International Film Festival

2005

Best Actress

Helena Bonham Carter

Nominated

Tokyo Grand Prix

Won

Best Actress

Helena Bonham Carter

Evening Standard British Film Awards

2007

Nominated

Producers Award (also for Brick)

Ram Bergman

Independent Spirit Awards

2005

Nominated

Best First Screenplay Award

Gabrielle Zevin

Independent Spirit Awards

2006

Nominated

Golden Spike

Seminci Valladolid International Film Festival

2005

Production

Eckhart and Bonham Carter shot 82 pages of dialogue in only 12 days of principal photography.

To facilitate the split screen presentation of the film, two cameras (one on each actor) were used throughout principal photography.

For the sex scene, the director asked the actors to stay in bed while the crew quickly changed camera positions to get all of the coverage. The entire scene, including 10 camera setups and a complex dolly shot, was completed in 45 minutes.

To facilitate a sense of realism, both actors provided elements of their own costumes. Eckhart wore his own Armani suit and Calvin Klein underwear as part of his costume, while Bonham Carter wore her own Prada shoes.

The hotel room, the interior of the elevator and the interior of the cab(s) in the final shot were shot on a sound stage in Culver City, California.

The hotel ballroom scenes were shot in the ballroom of the Park Plaza Hotel, adjacent to MacArthur Park near downtown Los Angeles, California. Other films shot at that location include Barton Fink, Chaplin, Nixon, The Fisher King, Wild at Heart and Bugsy.

Many scenes were shot in the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner building, which has been used almost exclusively as a film location since the notorious Los Angeles newspaper, once owned by William Randolph Hearst, closed down in 1989.

Post-production

This is the first movie in which Apple Inc.’s Final Cut Pro logo appears in the end credits.

An editor was initially hired to cut the movie. After putting together an assembly, the editor quit, citing the difficulties of editing for the two frames. The director, who had never cut a film before, learned to use Final Cut Pro editing software and became the editor.

The final shot in the movie was the only one captured with a single camera. Eckhart and Bonham Carter were filmed in the back of one taxi on set. In post production, the shot was digitally divided in two; digital movement was added for each car and two separate background plates were composited to create the illusion of different taxi interiors.

The film contains 117 visual effects shots, all of which are designed to be “invisible”. When the visual effects supervisor, Kwesi Collisson, solicited bids from VFX houses, he received an initial estimated VFX budget of over $1 million, followed by a $400,000 “low budget” estimate. Collisson decided to execute all of the effects himself, spending four months using Adobe After Effects and Shake (software) to complete the necessary shots.

Three apparent B-roll shots of the supporting characters in a ballroom full of dancers were actually created using visual effects. When the line producer asked the director the minimum number of extras needed for these shots during principal photography, the director requested 50 extras. When only seven extras showed up on the ballroom…
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The Sharon Steel Corporation was once a steel plant, and is notable due to its contribution toward the growth of the iron and steel industry in the Shenango River Valley, Mercer County, Pennsylvania.

The longest surviving was the Sharon Iron Company, the owner of the old Clay Furnace. It is true that it ceased operations at the beginning of the 20th century, but it was the foundation for the future growth of the iron and steel industries. Many of the men who were affiliated with this company have gained local as well as national recognition for their contributions to the processes of steel manufacture. Among these men were Christian H. Buhl and his son Frank Buhl. In 1862, Christian H. Buhl became owner of the plant, and appointed Frank the general manager. From this and other holdings, the Buhls formed the Sharon Steel Castings Company in 1887. This was the first steel producing plant in the Valley, as well as in Mercer County. In 1902 the company became associated with the American Steel Foundries. Its plant has since been dismantled, and the site is now occupied by the Mercer Tube Works.

Contents

1 The Buhl Family

2 1902 - South Sharon becomes an independent borough - the birth of Farrell

3 Farrell attracts multiple industries

4 Sharon Steel Hoop Company

5 The Depression affects the Steel Industry

6 The Sharon Steel Corporation is born

7 Sharon Steel’s importance to World War II

8 Post Script

9 Notes

10 References

//


The Buhl Family

In 1890, when steel began to replace the use of puddled iron, a change in manufacturing methods became necessary. This change, however, served to advance the Shenango Valley as a steel center, and resulted in greater developments in the new industry.

The Buhls were responsible for bringing two other plants into the Shenango Valley, the Buhl Steel Company of Sharon in 1896, and a much larger plant located one mile (1.6 km) south of Sharon, n the bottom land, in 1899. The Buhl Steel Company and the property of the Sharon Iron Company, Ltd., locally called the orth Works, passed into the hands of the Carnegie Steel Corporation, while the Sharon Steel Company, locally referred to as the outh Works, became a part of the Union Steel Company on December 1, 1902. This plant later was known as the Farrell Works of the Carnegie Steel Corporation.

1902 - South Sharon becomes an independent borough - the birth of Farrell

Because the mills were located along the river, it was natural that the workers would want to settle in towns nearby, thus Sharon and South Sharon grew and developed into sizeable communities. Both cities can point to Frank A. Buhl for making Shenango Valley, practically single-handed, an iron and steel center.

As soon as the Sharon Steel Company became established on the banks of the river just south of Sharon, hundreds of houses were built in this area, and in a short time a town of several thousand inhabitants had sprung up. This town was named arrell in honor of James A. Farrell, the president of the United States Steel Corporation. The settlement of Farrell can be compared with the early settlements in the West during the gold rush. There was such a heavy influx of heterogeneous groups of peoples into the village that it attained a growth hat for rapidity surpasses the record of any city in the country. Farrell although born without any particular pioneer history, had a romantic development which was peculiarly its own. Since 1901 periodic unsuccessful attempts have been made to merge Farrell with Sharon, but Farrell consistently preferred to remain an individual borough, finally a city.

Farrell attracts multiple industries

With the Carnegie-Illinois working at full capacity producing bar plates, the American Steel and Tin Plate Company and the American Steel and Wire Company, quick to realize the advantages of being near the source of bar plate output, in 1900 established themselves in close proximity to the Carnegie, and converted the Carnegie products into sheet steel, tin plate, and wire, respectively. These firms were added milestones to the progress of Farrell. Since the American Sheet and Tin Plate Company, the Carnegie, and the American Steel and Wire Company were now the mainstays if industry in Farrell, we should note some of the high points of their history. The original furnaces produced the first pig iron on December 9, 1901. Six years later, on June 9, 1907, seven open hearth furnaces were added, and nine years later, on March 21, 1916, three more were added. The first rolling mills began their operations on May 10, 1901, and the first open hearth was made on April 30, 1901. The original bar and billet mill was replaced by the present mill in March, 1918.

The Carnegie mill produced 482,000 gross tons of steel annually

The Carnegie works used two blast furnaces with daily capacities of 650 and…(and so on)
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An example of candy ravers

A candy raver (most commonly called a “Kandi Kid” or “Candee Child”, “Kandi Raver”) is a rave attendee who exchanges or shares small gifts, primarily beads, necklaces, toys, bracelets, or stickers.

The defining part of a Kandi Kids appearance is their wearing of a large number of homemade bracelets made of plastic beads, known as “Kandi”. The bracelets are often given as gifts to remember past raves and commemorate new friendships. Kandi Kids are also known (and sometimes identified) by their brightly coloured style which is very similar to the Harajuku style in Japan. They are often found wearing bright clothing depicting “trippy” designs as well as cartoon characters, hair extensions or hair falls, fake dreadlocks, childish attire, chew toys laced on string around their necks, fuzzy leg warmers, visor hats, hair clips and a lot of bright make up.

In most cases a Kandi Kid will find one or more things to wear that makes them appear different from other Kandi Kids or people in general. This individuality allows for easy recognition as well as to help others see and/or remember who they are from a distance. Often it can be a particular style or color they do their hair, a particular hat, shirt, pair of pants, gloves, headphones, belt, or other accessory.

Contents

1 Origins Of The Culture

2 Kandi

3 The Making Of

3.1 Visual Aspect

3.2 Tactile Aspect

3.3 Emotional, Sentimental, or Nostalgic Aspect

3.4 Social Aspect

4 Two Main Ways Of Giving Kandi

5 Other Types Of Kandi

5.1 The Kandi Necklace

5.2 The Kandi Ring

5.3 The Kandi Anklette

6 References

//


Origins Of The Culture

Candy ravers can primarily trace their style of fashion to the late 1980s culture and the “Summer of Love” in the United Kingdom. Fashion in clubs at the time were primarily day-glo colored attire, smiley face clothing (fashion also attributed to Acid House and the corresponding movement), and whistles.

Many spelling variants occur throughout the rave scene when referring to this subculture, although the actual origins of the term are unknown. Use of the term on Usenet alt.rave shows earliest reference to the spelling “candee”. With alternates “kandy”, “kandi”, “candi”, following later.

Several of the Hyperreal mailing lists have posts predating the use on usenet such as this one by Vladimir Katz dated October 21, 1994:

Everyone felt free to be themselves do what they want be free with no fear of being looked down on. People came in costumes people gave out candy people introduced themselves to random others!!



Although it is also possible he was just talking about regular eating candy due to the spelling of the word. It is also possible he was referring to the common practice of Kandi Kids giving out edible candy such as hard candy, lollipops, gum, and suckers to fellow ravers and Kandi Kids alike. This practice has two reasons however. One is for the mere purpose of enjoying the candy and the second is to lessen the teeth grinding that occurs due to ecstasy use.

Kandi

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (April 2007)



A Dandy pile of Candy



Prototypal Kandy



Six Foot Kande Bong

The Making Of

Kandy (or “Kandi”) is generally made of plastic pony beads occasionally with various other beads made of metal, wood, or glass. Hearts, stars, pom-poms, Alphabeads, glow-in-the-dark beads, butterflys, and smiley faces are popular choices when making Kandi and are generally made with elastic string to stretch. Candy ravers will sometimes hold parties just for the sake of making Kandi, generally as gifts for friends.

Kandi has four main functions:

Visual Aspect

The first is the visual aspect that kandi creates. They are usually very bright day-glo colors chosen especially for the purpose of the visual effects created when someone dances wearing them while being illuminated by different types and colors of light. The sequence of colors chosen will sometimes appear jumbled and somewhat random but the beads are typically chosen to contrast with other beads making them visually jump out. Some beads will also be UV reactive and/or glow in the dark. Because of the vast amounts of Kandi that are worn, typically not all pieces will fit onto the raver’s arm. Sometimes a shoelace or string is used to hold all the Kandi. This shoelace or string will generally be tied to a raver’s waist, or backpack.

Tactile Aspect

The second is the tactile aspect which is the way the Kandi feels on the arm. Usually being tight in nature (the Kandi) they (the person wearing them) can constantly feel the bracelets on their arms enhancing the…(and so on)
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A cello bow

In music, a bow is moved across some part of a musical instrument, causing vibration which the instrument emits as sound. The vast majority of bows are used with string instruments, although some bows are used with musical saws and other bowed idiophones.

Contents

1 Materials and manufacture

2 Types of bow

3 Bowing

4 History

4.1 Origin

4.2 The modern Western bow

4.3 Historical bows

5 Quotes

5.1 Other types of bow

6 Maintenance

7 Nomenclature

8 See also

9 References

10 Further reading

11 External links

11.1 List of Contemporary Bow Makers

//


Materials and manufacture

A bow consists of a carefully chosen stick (usually wood) with some other material stretched between its ends. The type of bow used to play instruments of the violin family has many hairs stretched between its ends, but bows used in other cultures often stretch a single piece of string between the ends of the wood.

Fine modern bows used to play string instruments of the violin family (the violin, viola, cello and double bass) are usually made of pernambuco wood from Brazil and are strung with horsehair. When choosing wood to make bows, a violin or a bow maker must choose sound quality above all. A common practice is to reserve the best and most beautiful wood for a maker’s most expensive work. Some bows are made nowadays from synthetic materials, such as a carbon fiber epoxy composite, or fiberglass. Carbon fiber bows have become very popular, and some of the better carbon fiber bows are now comparable to the finer pernambuco sticks. Lower quality bows can also be made of synthetic materials and less suitable types of wood.

For the frog (which holds and adjusts the near end of the horsehair), ebony is most often used, but other materials, often decorative, are used as well; these include ivory and tortoiseshell. Near the frog is the grip, which is made of a wire, silk, or “whalebone” wrap and a thumb cushion made of leather or snakeskin. The tip plate of the bow may be made of bone, ivory, mammoth ivory, or metal, such as silver.

A bow maker or Archetier typically uses between 150 and 200 hairs from the tail of a horse for a violin bow. Bows for other members of the violin family typically have a wider ribbon, using more hairs. White hair generally produces a smoother sound and black hair (used mainly for double bass bows) is coarser, producing a rougher sound. Lower quality (inexpensive) bows often use nylon or synthetic hair. Rosin, a hard, sticky substance made from resin (sometimes mixed with wax), is regularly applied to the bow hair to increase friction.

In making a bow, the greater part of the woodworking is done on a straight stick. According to James McKean (reference below), “the bow maker graduates the stick in precise gradations so that it is evenly flexible throughout.” These gradations were calculated by Fran?ois Tourte, discussed below.

In order to shape the curve or “camber” of the bow stick, the maker carefully heats the stick in an alcohol flame, a few inches at a time, bending the heated stick gradually to the proper shape. A metal or wooden template is used to get the exact model’s curve and shape while heating.

The art of making wooden bows has changed little since the 19th century; most modern composite sticks roughly resemble the Tourte design, although the Incredibow marks a serious departure from it, having a “straight” stick cambered only by the fixed tension of the synthetic hair.

Types of bow



French (top) and German (bottom) double bass bows

Slightly different bows, varying in weight and length, are used for the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.

These are generally variations on the same basic design. However, the bow used for the double bass comes in two distinct forms. The “French” or “overhand” bow is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral string instrument family, while the “German” or “Butler” bow is broader and shorter, and held with the right hand grasping the frog in a loose fist. The German bow is the older of the two designs. The French bow, often chosen by soloists due to its greater maneuverability, was not widely popular until its adoption by 19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. Both bows are used by modern players, and the choice between the two is a matter of personal preference.

Bowing



This picture of the Juilliard String Quartet performing in 1963 demonstrates the different ways in which a bow is held for different instruments.

The characteristic long, sustained, and singing sound produced by the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass is due to the drawing of the bow against their strings. This sustaining of musical sound with a bow is comparable to a singer using…(and so on)
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For other uses, see Fashion (disambiguation).



In Following the Fashion (1794), James Gillray caricatured a figure flattered by the short-bodiced gowns then in fashion, contrasting it with an imitator whose figure is not flattered.

Fashion refers to the styles and customs prevalent at a given time. In its most common usage, “fashion” exemplifies the appearances of clothing, but the term encompasses more. Many fashions are popular in many cultures at any given time. Important is the idea that the course of design and fashion will change more rapidly than the culture as a whole. Fashion designers create and produce clothing articles.

The terms “fashionable” and “unfashionable” were employed to describe whether someone or something fits in with the current or even not so current, popular mode of expression. The term “fashion” is frequently used in a positive sense, as a synonym for glamour, beauty and style. In this sense, fashions are a sort of communal art, through which a culture examines its notions of beauty and goodness. The term “fashion” is also sometimes used in a negative sense, as a synonym for fads and trends, and materialism. A number of cities are recognized as global fashion centers and are recognized for their fashion weeks, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences. These cities are Paris, Milan, New York, and London. Other cities, mainly Los Angeles, Berlin, Tokyo, Rome, Miami, Hong Kong, S?o Paulo, Sydney, Barcelona, Amsterdam, Madrid, Montreal, Mumbai, Vienna, Auckland, Moscow, New Delhi, San Juan, Stockholm, Turin and Dubai also hold fashion weeks and are better recognized every year.

Contents

1 Areas of fashion

2 Clothing

3 Changes

4 Media

5 Intellectual property

6 See also

7 References

8 Further reading

9 External links

//


Areas of fashion

Fashion as social phenomena is common. The rise and fall of fashion has been especially documented and examined in the following fields:

Architecture, interior design, and landscape design

Arts and crafts

Body type, clothing or costume, cosmetics, personal grooming, hairstyle, and personal adornment

Dance and music

Forms of address, slang, and other forms of speech

Economics and spending choices, as studied in behavioral finance

Entertainment, games, hobbies, sports, and other pastimes

Etiquette

Fast fashion

Management, management styles and ways of organizing

Politics and media, especially the topics of conversation encouraged by the media

Philosophy and religion: although the doctrines of religions and philosophies change very slowly if at all, there can be rapid changes in what areas of a religion or a philosophy are seen as most important and most worth following or studying.

Social networks and the diffusion of representations and practices

Sociology and the meaning of clothing for identity-building

Technology, such as the choice of computer programming techniques

Hospitality industry, such as designer uniforms custom made for a hotel, restaurant, casino, resort or club, in order to reflect a property and brand.

Of these fields, costume especially has become so linked in the public eye with the term “fashion” that the more general term “costume” has mostly been relegated to only mean fancy dress or masquerade wear, while the term “fashion” means clothing generally, and the study of it. This linguistic switch is due to the so-called fashion plates which were produced during the Industrial Revolution, showing novel ways to use new textiles. For a broad cross-cultural look at clothing and its place in society, refer to the entries for clothing, costume and fabrics. The remainder of this article deals with clothing fashions in the Western world.

Clothing

Main article: History of Western fashion

The habit of people continually changing the style of clothing worn, which is now worldwide, at least among urban populations, is generally held by historians to be a distinctively Western one.[dubious discuss] At other periods in Ancient Rome and other cultures changes in costume occurred, often at times of economic or social change, but then a long period without large changes followed. In 8th century Cordoba, Spain, Ziryab, a famous musician - a star in modern terms - is said to have introduced sophisticated clothing styles based on seasonal and daily timings from his native Baghdad and his own inspiration.



English caricature of Tippies of 1796

The beginnings of the habit in Europe of continual and increasingly rapid change in styles can be fairly reliably dated to the middle of the 14th century, to which historians including James Laver and Fernand Braudel date the start of Western fashion in clothing. The most dramatic manifestation was a sudden drastic…(and so on)
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A hard disk head and arm on a platter



Microphotograph of a hard disk head. The size of the front face is about 0.3 mm. One functional part of the head is the round, orange structure in the middle - the lithographically defined copper coil of the write transducer. Also note the electric connections by wires bonded to gold-plated pads.

Disk read/write heads are mechanisms that read data from or write data to disk drives. The heads have gone through a number of changes over the years.

In a hard drive, the heads ‘fly’ above the disk surface with clearance of as little as 3 nanometres. The “flying height” is constantly decreasing to enable higher areal density. The flying height of the head is controlled by the design of an air-bearing etched onto the disk-facing surface of the slider. The role of the airbearing is to maintain the flying height constant as the head moves over the surface of the disk. If the head hits the disk’s surface, a catastrophic head crash can result.

The heads themselves started out similar to the heads in tape recordersimple devices made out of a tiny C-shaped piece of highly magnetizable material called ferrite wrapped in a fine wire coil. When writing, the coil is energized, a strong magnetic field forms in the gap of the C, and the recording surface adjacent to the gap is magnetized. When reading, the magnetized material rotates past the heads, the ferrite core concentrates the field, and a current is generated in the coil. The gap where the field is very strong is quite narrow. That gap is roughly equal to the thickness of the magnetic media on the recording surface. The gap determines the minimum size of a recorded area on the disk. Ferrite heads are large, and write fairly large features. They must also be flown fairly far from the surface thus requiring stronger fields and larger heads.

Metal in Gap (MIG) heads are ferrite heads with a small piece of metal in the head gap that concentrates the field. This allows smaller features to be read and written. MIG heads were replaced with thin film heads. Thin film heads were electronically similar to ferrite heads and used the same physics. But they were manufactured using photolithographic processes and thin films of material that allowed fine features to be created. Thin film heads were much smaller than MIG heads and therefore allowed smaller recorded features to be used. Thin film heads allowed 3.5 in drives to reach 4GB storage capacities in 1995. The geometry of the head gap was a compromise between what worked best for reading and what worked best for writing.

The next head improvement was to optimize the thin film head for writing and to create a separate head for reading. The separate read head uses the magnetoresistive (MR) effect which changes the resistance of a material in the presence of magnetic field. These MR heads are able to read very small magnetic features reliably, but can not be used to create the strong field used for writing. The term AMR (A=anisotropic) is used to distinguish it from the later introduced improvement in MR technology called GMR (giant magnetoresistance). The introduction of the AMR head in 1996 by IBM led to a period of rapid areal density increases of about 100% per year. In 2000 GMR, Giant Magnetoresistive, heads started to replace AMR read heads. In 2005, the first drives to use TMR (tunnelling MR) heads were introduced by Seagate allowing 400 GB drives with 3 disk platters.

In 2005, Seagate introduced TMR heads featuring integrated microscopic heater coils to control the shape the transducer region of the head during operation. The heater can be activated prior to the start of a write operation to ensure proximity of the write pole to the disk/medium. This improves the written magnetic transitions by ensuring that the head’s write field fully saturates the magnetic disk medium. Same thermal actuation approach can be used to temporarily decrease the separation between the disk medium and the read sensor during the readback process, thus improving signal strength and resolution. By mid-2006 other manufacturers have begun to use similar approaches in their products.

During the same time frame a transition to perpendicular magnetic recording is occurring (PMR), in which for reasons of improved stability and higher areal density potential, the traditional in-plane orientation of magnetization in the disk is being changed to a perpendicular orientation. This has major implications for the write process and the write head structure, as well as for the design of the magnetic disk media or hard disk platter, less directly so for the read sensor of the magnetic head.

See also

Disk drive

Seek time

Tape head

External links

The PC Guide: Function of the Read/Write Heads

IBM Research: GMR introduction, animations

Hitachi Global Storage Technologies: Recording Head Materials
…(and so on)
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